process in which there is a loss of hydrogen electrons
oxidation
process in which there is a gain of hydrogen electrons
reduction
replacement of hydrogen by a carboxyl group [-COOH]
carboxylation
substance which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
enzyme
inactive precursor protein with an additional peptide attached
pro-enzyme
enzyme that catalyzes the addition of a carboxyl group
carboxylase
removal of the carboxyl group [-COOH]
decarboxylation
an enzyme that catalyzes the release of CO2 from compounds
decarboxylase
reaction that combines H2O with a salt to produce acid and base
hydrolysis
enzyme that causes hydrolysis
hydrolase
movement of a phosphate (PO4) from one molecule to another
phosphorylation
enzyme which adds a phosphate to an organic compound
phosphorylase
enzyme that removes a phosphate from an organic compound
phosphatase
enzyme that adds a high-energy phosphate to an organic compound
kinase
enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of one group to another
transferase
enzyme that makes an isomer (same chemical composition)
isomerase
molecule with the same composition but different chemical structure
isomer
isomerase enzyme which changes the configuration of a molecule
mutase
number of factors that affect enzyme activity
three [3]
temperature, pH, and concentration of the substrate
affect enzyme activity
maximum velocity of a reaction
Vmax
the amount of substrate required to reach 1/2 of the Vmax
Km
a substance which slows down the rate of an enzyme reaction
inhibitor
competition and allosterism
enzymatic regulation
actively competes with substrate for the active site
competition
change in activity by acting on a site other than the active site
allosterism
chemical bond between two amino acids
peptide bond
chemical bond between the base bases found in DNA
hydrogen bond
chemical bond between glycerol and fatty acids
ester bond
chemical bond between two sugars
glycosidic bind
chemical bond between nucleotides
phosphodiester
site of all pathways except the Krebs cycle and 1st half of the urea cycle
cystosol
site of the Krebs cycle and 1st half of the urea cycle
mitochondria
amylose and amylopectin
constituents of starch
long, unbranched chain of glucose linked at C1 and C4 [alpha1, 4 linked]
amylose
fewer branches of glucose with alpha1, 4 and 1, 6 linked branches
amylopectin
comprised of glucose and fructose; found in table sugar and fruit
sucrose
contains galactose linked to glucose; found in milk; beta1, 4 link
lactose
form in which glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver
glycogen
aldopentose [5 carbon] sugar
ribose
ketohexose [6 carbon] sugar
fructose
crucial step that controls how fast or slow the pathway goes
rate limiting step
the most important rate limiting step in glycolysis
phosphofructokinase
steps in glycolysis at which ATP is used
steps 1 and 3
steps in glycolysis at which ATP is produced
steps 7 and 10
step in glycolysis at which NADH is produced
step 6
number of pyruvate molecules produced from one glucose in glycolysis
two [2]
converted to acetyl CoA
main fate of pyruvate
alternate fates of pyruvate
lactate and alanine
number of carbon molecules in pyruvate
3
number of carbon molecules in acetoacetate
2
making glucose from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, fatty and amino acids
gluconeogenesis
irreversible steps in glycolysis that are replaced in gluconeogenesis
steps 1, 3, and 10
location of gluconeogenesis
mitochondria/cytoplasm
lactate is converted to pyruvate which is converted to glucose
sequence of events
vitamin def. which results in excess lactic acid production
biotin def.
rate limiting step in gluconeogenesis
F 1,6 bisphosphatase
hormone which inhibits gluconeogenesis
insulin
location of krebs cycle
mitochondrial matrix
steps in the krebs cycle at which NADH is produced
steps 3+4=7
type of enzyme which facilitates the production of NADH
dehydrogenase
destination of the energy harvested from the krebs cycle
electron transport chain
number of ATPs generated from 1 NADH
3 ATP
number of ATPs generated from 1 FADH2
2 ATP
number of NADH, FADH2, and GTP generated by one krebs cycle
3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP
number of krebs cycles to completely break down 1 glucose
2
number of ATP produced from breakdown of one glucose in glycolysis
4 ATP
number of NADH produced from one glucose in glycolysis
2 NADH
net ATP gain from one glucose in glycolysis
2 ATP
number of NADH produced by converting pyruvate to acetyl CoA
1
total ATP generated by the breakdown of one molecule of glucose
38 ATP
alternate fuel types for the krebs cycle
proteins and fat
Succinyl CoA, Ocaloacetate, Fumerate, and Alpha-ketoglutarate
sites proteins enter
SOFA
alpha-ketoglutarate and Succinyl CoA
sites fats can enter
electron transport chain (ETC) is found in the
inner mitochondrial membrane
role of electron transport chain
transfer electrons to O2
compound which has both reduce and oxidized form of a molecule
redox pair
redox pair example
NAD (oxidized) and NADH (reduced)
drop off point for NADH in the ETC
complex I
drop off point for FADH2 in the ETC
complex II
alternate name for CoQ 10
ubiquinone
heme containing compounds that receive electrons from CoQH2
cytochromes
ETC complexes involving cytochromes
complex III and IV
ETC complex involving phosphorylation
complex V
other metal which is important to the ETC
copper
cycle used to prevent lactic acidosis (lactic acid buildup)
cori cycle
purpose of the Hexose MonoPhosphate shunt along the ribose
produces NADPH
location of the pentose phosphate pathway (aka HMP shunt)
cytosol
rate-limiting enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway
G63P dehydrogenase
site of glycogen metabolism
cytosol
starter or primer molecule for glycogen synthesis
glycogenin
compound containing a 5-carbon and 6-carbon sugar in glycogenesis
UDPG
rate limiting enzyme used to lengthen the glycogen chain
glycogen synthase
type of chemical bonds between glucose molecules; alpha1,4 and alpha1,6 links
glycosidic bond
rate limiting enzyme in glycogenolysis, activated by ATP
glycogen phosphorylase
site for glycogenolysis
heart, liver, and muscle
name of enzyme that changes G1P to G6P
phosphoglucomutase
group consisting of carbon with oxygen and hydroxyl attached
carboxyl group
one with no double bond between the carbon atoms (C-C)
saturated fatty acid
one with one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms
unsaturated fatty acid
linoleic acid (vegetable oil) and linolenic acid (fish oil)
essential fatty acids
polyunsaturated fatty acid - 18:2 (9,12)
oleic acid
mono-unsaturated fatty acid [MUFA] - 18:1 (9)
linoleic acid
polyunsaturated fatty acid - 20:4 (5,8,11,14)
arachidonic acid
location of lipolysis
mitochondria
site of lipogenesis
cytosol
rate limiting step in cholesterol synthesis and target for statins
HMG CoA reductase
starting point for steroid hormone synthesis
cholesterol
essential amino acids
Phe, Val, Thr, Trp, Ile, Met (His and Arg during pregnancy), Leu, and Lys
non-essential amino acids
Asn, Gly, Glu, Cys, Ala, Pro, Ser, Try, Asp, and Gln
cyclic amino acid
proline (Pro)
aromatic amino acids
phenylalanine (Phe), Tyrosine (Tyr), and Tryptophan (Trp)
basic amino acids
Histidine (His), Arginine (Arg), and Lysine (Lys)
acid amino aids
asparagine (Asn), aspartate (Asp), glutamine (Gln), and glutamate (Glu)
sulfur-containing amino acids
cysteine (Cys), methionine (Met), serine (Ser), and threonine (Thr)
alanine [Ala}, glycine [Gly], isoleucine [Ile], leucine [Leu], and valine [Val]
aliphatic amino acids
removal of the amine NH2 group
deamination
source of nitrogen for the urea cycle
glutamate and alanine
substrates for urea formation
NH3 and CO2
1st 2 steps in the mitochondria; rest in the cytoplasm
site of urea cycle
rate-limiting enzyme in the urea cycle
carbomoyl PO4 synthase
purine or pyrimidine base PLUS pentose [5-carbon] sugar
nucleoside
purine or pyrimidine base PLUS pentose sugar and phosphate
nucleotide
adenine and guanine; used to make nucleosides and nucleotides
purine bases
cytosine, uracil, thymine; used to make nucleosides and nucleotides
pyrimidine bases
adenine and thymine; cytosine and guanine; adenine and uracil
base pairs
nucleoside formed by combining uracil and d-ribose
uridine
enzyme which converts xanthine into uric acid
xanthine oxidase
process by which RNA template for protein synthesis is made from DNA
transcription
process by which RNA codon begins to make an protein [AUG or GUG]
translation
arginine is made from which amino acid
glutamine
glutamine, arginine and proline are all made from which amino acid
glutamate
glutamate is made from which amino acid
alpha-ketoglutarate
asparagine is made from which amino acid
aspartate
transamination of oxaloacetate
source of aspartate
fat soluble vitamins
A D E K
water soluble vitamins
B and C
anti-oxidants
Vit A C E and selenium
used to make rhodopsin, helps in the differentiation of epithelial tissue
vit A
used in carboxylation of glutamate residue in making clotting factors
vit K
powerful antioxidant which mops free radicals; lipid antioxidant
vit E
cofactor in pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
vit B1 [thiamine]
precursor for FMN, FAD, and FADH2 in the ETC and redox reactions
vit B2 [riboflavin]
precursor for NAD and NADP in the ETC
vit B3 [niacin]
precursor for removal of CO2 [decarboxylase] in the Krebs cycle
vit B3 [niacin]
acyl carrier as part of Coenzyme A; Pantene Pro V [V=five]
vit B5 [pantothenic acid]
cofactor for several transaminase reactions
vit B6 [pyridoxine]
used in carboxylation reactions
vit B7 [biotin]
used in reactions involving malonyl and methylmalonyl CoA
vit B7 [biotin]
used in the transfer of 1-carbon units and make methionine and purines
vit B9 [folic acid]
cofactor for methionine and succinyl CoA manufacture
vit B12 [cobalamine]
cofactor in hydroxylation in the synthesis of collagen
vit C [ascorbic acid]
necessary in the ETC and found in prunes
copper
cofactor of carbonic anhydrase found in seafood, meat, and whole grain
zinc
forms complexes with ATP and found abundantly in nuts
magnesium
helps with glucose transport of oxygen and energy formation
chromium
necessary for the tranpsort of oxygen and energy formation
iron
def in vit C
scurvy
def in vit A
night blindness
def in vit B1
beriberi
def in vit B3
pellagra
def in vit B12 due to lack of intrinsic factor (IF)
pernicious anemia
def in vit D
rickets and osteomalacia
def in vit B9 [folic acid]
macrocytic anemia
def in B7 [biotine]
lactic acidosis
def of vit E
hemolytic anemia
def of vit K
prolonged bleeding
type of anemia seen with def in iron
microcytic/hypochromic
def in calcium, positive Chvostek sign
tetany
true vegans need to supplement
calcium and vit B12
skin rash in pellagra; vit B3 def
casal’s necklace
syndrome of amnesia and lying; vit B1 def
wernicke korsakoff
vit B2 def
magenta tongue
vit B12 def
sore beef-red tongue