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Physiological Flashcards

1
Q

At resting state, what is the charge inside and outside the cell?

A

Inside the cell is negatively charged and outside is more positively charged (polarization)

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2
Q

What happens in a neuron when there is sufficient stimulation?

A

The cell depolarizers- sodium channels open allowing positively charged sodium ions to enter therefore making inside the cell to be more positively charged.

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3
Q

Depolarization leads to what?

A

Action potential

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4
Q

What happens after depolarization?

A

Repolarization-sodium channels close and potassium ones open therefore allowing positively charged potassium ions to leave making inside the cell more negatively charged than the outside of the cell

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5
Q

What principle does action potential work on?

A

All or none

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6
Q

What receptors does acetylcholine act on?

A

Muscarinic and nicotinic

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7
Q

What is acetylcholine responsible for?

A

Controls actions of the skeletal muscles (causes muscles contract) in the somatic nervous system.

Controls internal organs and glands in the autonomic nervous system.

In the CNS, it plays important role in learning and memory, as well as in REM sleep, regulation of sleep wake cycle.

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8
Q

Degeneration of ACh in the CNS can lead to what?

A

Memory deficits like that in Alzheimer’s disease

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9
Q

Degeneration of ACh in the peripheral nervous system can lead to what?

A

Profound weakness of skeletal muscles (myasthenia gravis is autoimmune disorder that attacks ACh at neuromuscular junctions)

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10
Q

What type of inhibitors are used to slow down memory decline with Alzheimer’s disease?

A 
Cholinesterase (prevents breakdown of ACh) like
tacrine (Cognex)
donepezil (Aricept)
galantamine (Reminyl)
rivastigmine (Exelon)
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11
Q

What functions is dopamine involved in?

A

Mood, motivation, and voluntary movement. Also, personality and sleep.

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12
Q

What issues has dopamine been linked to?

A

Prominent motor symptoms like Tourette’s disorder and Parkinson’s. Also, it plays a key role in schizophrenia (dopamine hypothesis-disorder due to elevated dopamine levels or over sensitivity of dopamine receptors)

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13
Q

What is dopamine classified as?

A

Catecholamine

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14
Q

How does dopamine contribute to Tourette’s?

A

Over sensitivity to or excessive dopamine in the caudate nucleus

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15
Q

How does dopamine contribute to Parkinson’s?

A

Degeneration of dopamine receptors in the substantia nigra.

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16
Q

How does dopamine reinforce actions of stimulant drugs like opiates, alcohol or nicotine?

A

Cocaine drugs block the reuptake of dopamine and nicotine stimulates its release.

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17
Q

What is norepinephrine classified as?

A

Catecholamine

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18
Q

What is norepinephrine responsible for?

A

Mood, attention, dreaming, learning, and certain autonomic functions.

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19
Q

What is the Catecholamine hypothesis?

A

Predicts that some forms of depression are due to lower than normal levels of norepinephrine.

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20
Q

What type of effect does serotonin have?

A

Inhibitory

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21
Q

What functions does serotonin mediate?

A

Temperature, hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, aggression, arousal and sleep.

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22
Q

Elevated levels of serotonin is linked to what?

A

Schizophrenia, autistic disorder, and food restriction in anorexia nervous.

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23
Q

Low levels of serotonin is linked to what?

A

Aggression, depression, suicide, bulimia nervous, OCD, and PTSD

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24
Q

Does serotonin play a role in social phobia?

A

Yes

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25
Q

What type of effect does GABA have?

A

Inhibitory

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26
Q

What functions does GABA play a role in?

A

Eating, seizures, anxiety disorders, motor control, vision, and sleep.

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27
Q

What are low levels of GABA linked to?

A

Anxiety disorders - benzodiazepines reduce anxiety by enhancing the effects of GABA.

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28
Q

Abnormal levels of GABA is linked to what?

A

Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, and sleep disorders.

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29
Q

What type of effect does glutamate has?

A

Excitatory

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30
Q

What functions does glutamate play a role in?

A

Learning and memory

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31
Q

What important role does it play in memory?

A

Believed to play a role in long term potentiation - mechanism responsible for the formation of long term memories.

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32
Q

What can excessive levels of glutamate cause?

A

Excitotoxicity - lead to seizures that may contribute to stroke related brain changes

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33
Q

What are endorphins?

A

Endogenous morphines

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34
Q

What effect does endorphins have?

A

Inhibitory neuromodulators - lower sensitivity of post synaptic neurons to neurotransmitters

Analgesic properties- believe to prevent the release of substance P (involved in pain transmission)

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35
Q

What are the two main sections the nervous system divided into?

A

Peripheral and central nervous system

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36
Q

The CNS is subdivided into?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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37
Q

What are the spinal nerve groups?

A

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal

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38
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system do?

A

Relays messages between CNS and the body’s sensory organs, muscles, and glands.

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39
Q

The peripheral nervous system is divided into?

A

Somatic and autonomic

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40
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

Governs activities that are generally considered voluntary. Carries signals from skeletal muscles and senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

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41
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

Mainly related to involuntary activities. Controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs.

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42
Q

The autonomic nervous system is divided into?

A

Parasympathetic and sympathetic

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43
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in the conservation of energy and is also active during digestion and rest.

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44
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in the expenditure of energy; associated with arousal
Eg. dilation of pupils, sweating, ready body in fight or flight.

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45
Q

Injury to the cervical region of the spinal cord leads to?

A

Quadriplegia aka tetraplegia-loss of sensory and motor functioning in the arms and legs

46
Q

Injury to the thoracic region of the spinal cord leads to?

A

Paraplegia loss of sensory and motor functioning in the legs

47
Q

What is the difference between complete transection spinal cord injuries and incomplete?

A

Complete there is lack of sensation and movement below the injury, but with incomplete there is some sensation and movement below the injury

48
Q

What are the 3 membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord?

A

Pia mater (inner), arachnoid (middle), and dura mater (outer)

49
Q

What are the four main functions of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

A

Protection, buoyancy of the brain,decrease pressure on the base of the brain, and chemical stability (creates environment to allow proper functioning of the brain)

50
Q

What is hydrocephalus?

A

Enlargement of ventricles - may be due to obstruction of cerebral spinal fluid flow which builds up and leads to the enlargement of the ventricles. Some people with schizophrenia have hydrocephalus.

51
Q

What is the 5 stages of brain development?

A

Proliferation (2-2.5 wks)-new cells produce
Migration (8wks)-migrate to final destination in the brain
Differentiation-begin to look different and develop axons and dendrites
Myelination-myelinate axons
Synaptogenesis-formation of synapses

52
Q

What brain structures are located in the hindbrain?

A

Medulla, cerebellum, and pons

53
Q

What is the medulla responsible for?

A

Regulation of automatic responses (swallowing, coughing, sneezing) some which are vital like heart rate and breathing.

54
Q

What happens if the medulla is damage?

A

It usually results in fatal outcome

55
Q

What is the pons responsible for?

A

Connects the two halves of the cerebellum and aids in the integration of movements in the right and left sides of the body.

56
Q

What is the cerebellum responsible for?

A

Coordinates voluntary motor movements, responsible for balance and posture, and acquisition of motor skills.

57
Q

Abnormalities in the cerebellum is linked to what?

A

Autism, ADHD, and schizophrenia

58
Q

What happens if the cerebellum is damage?

A

Can led to ataxia-slurred speech, severe tremors, and loss of balance.

59
Q

Does alcohol have a strong effect on the cerebellum?

A

Yes. Alcohol intoxication may display similar symptoms of ataxia.

60
Q

What structures are in the midbrain?

A

Superior and inferior colliculi, substantia nigra, and reticular formation

61
Q

What role the Superior and inferior colliculi?

A

Routes for visual and auditory information

62
Q

What role does the substantia nigra have?

A

It plays a role in motor activity and the brain’s reward system

63
Q

What role does the reticular formation play?

A

It plays a role in arousal and consciousness. It also includes the ascending reticular activating system (involved in selective attention and memory)

64
Q

What happens if the reticular formation gets damage?

A

There would be a disruption in the sleep wake cycle and can produce a permanent coma like state of sleep.

65
Q

What are the sub cortical regions of the forebrain?

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, and the hippocampus.

66
Q

What is the thalamus responsible for?

A

Acts as a relay system- transmits incoming sensory information (except olfactory) to relays it to the cerebral cortex. It also plays a role in motor activity, language, and memory (especially declarative memory)

67
Q

Damage to the thalamus can cause what?

A

Severe memory impairment

68
Q

What is Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome?

A

Caused by a thiamine deficiency (usually the result of long term alcohol use) and leads to breakdown of neurons in the thalamus.

69
Q

What are the symptoms for Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome?

A

Usually starts with Wernicke encephalopathy- mental confusion, abnormal eye movement and ataxia. The progresses to Korsakoff syndrome - severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia and confabulation

70
Q

What is the hypothalamus responsible for?

A
  1. ) Maintaining the body’s homeostasis by influencing the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands (like hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature)
  2. ) physiological reactions association with strong emotions (fear, anger)
  3. )contains the suprachiasmatic nucleus- controls the body’s circadian rhythms
71
Q

What forebrain structures does the basal ganglia consists of?

A

Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra

72
Q

What is the basal ganglia responsible for?

A

Control of voluntary movement

73
Q

Damage to the basal ganglia can lead to?

A

Akinesia or hyperkinesia

74
Q

Abnormalities in the basal ganglia as been linked to what?

A

Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, Tourette’s, OCD, and ADHD

75
Q

The limbic system consists of what structures?

A

Amygdala, hippocampus, and the cingulate cortex

76
Q

What is the limbic system responsible for?

A

Memory and other cognitive functions-mainly related with the mediation of emotions

77
Q

What is the role of the amygdala?

A

Integrates, coordinates and directs motivational and emotional activities. Also, attaches emotions to memories.

78
Q

What is Kluver Bucy syndrome?

A

Lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes that causes emotional blunting (decrease fear and aggression and increase docility), excessive hunger, inappropriate sexual behaviors(hyper sexuality), and inability to recognize familiar objects or people (psychic blindness)

79
Q

What is the role of the hippocampus?

A

Processing visual,spatial, and verbal information and in consolidating declarative memories (converting short term memories into long term ones)

80
Q

Why would someone remove the medial temporal lobes (includes hippocampus?

A

Treatment of severe epilepsy-causes anterograde and retrograde amnesia

81
Q

What is contralateral representation?

A

Left side of the brain controls the functions of the right side of the body and vice versa -except for olfaction. Also, visual information goes to both hemispheres (right visual field of both eyes goes to the left hemisphere and vice versa)

82
Q

What is brain lateralization?

A

The right (abstract, artistic, nonverbal, emotional, negative emotions, holistic, intuitive)and left (written and spoken language, positive emotions, analytical, logical) hemispheres are dominant for different functions

83
Q

How is the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex connected?

A

By the corpus callosum-allows information sent directly to one hemisphere to be available to the other hemisphere.

84
Q

What happens if the corpus callosum is severed?

A

The hemispheres will operate as separate and independent brains-split brain persons

85
Q

Why would the corpus callosum be severed?

A

Treatment of severe epilepsy

86
Q

What is an example of someone who is split brain?

A

When object was presented so that it was processed only by the right hemisphere = person could pick out the object with left hand, but could not pick it out with right hand or use language to name or describe the object.

However, if processed only by left hemisphere = able to name object and pick it out with right hand, but unable to select it with left hand (Sperry & Gazzaniga)

87
Q

What did the dichotic listening task find?

A

People typically recalled more digits heard by the ear that was contralateral to the dominant hemisphere (usually the right ear)

88
Q

What are the lobes found in the cerebral cortex?

A

Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital

89
Q

What structures does the frontal lobe consists?

A

Primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, Brocca’s area, and prefrontal cortex

90
Q

What role does the prefrontal cortex play?

A

Complex behaviors like emotion, memory, self awareness and higher order cognitive functioning (executive)

91
Q

Damage or abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex is?

A

Damage = impaired performance on problem solving and creativity, but not in IQ scores.

Abnormalities =linked to schizophrenia, ADHD, and dementia

92
Q

What effect does damage to the dorsolatetal prefrontal cortex have?

A

Dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome - impaired judgment, planning, and organization, as well as inflexible perseverative responses

93
Q

What effect does damage to the orbitofrontal area prefrontal cortex have?

A

Pseudopsychopathy- involves emotional lability distractibility, poor impulse control, and impaired social insight.

Aka orbitofrontal disinhibition syndrome

94
Q

What effect does damage to the mediofrontal area prefrontal cortex have?

A

Pseudodepression - impaired spontaneity, reduced emotional reactions, diminished motor behavior and verbal output

Aka mesial frontal apathetic syndrome

95
Q

What is the role of the primary motor cortex?

A

Involved in the execution of movement; neurons are arranged according to the location of the muscles they control

96
Q

Damage to the primary motor cortex would lead to?

A

Loss of reflexes and flaccid hemiplegia (loss of muscle tone) in areas contralateral to the damage

97
Q

What is the supplementary motor area role?

A

Involved in the planning and control of movement, learning new motor sequences, and mediates motor imagery (mental representation of movement)

98
Q

What is the Brocca’s area role?

A

Major language area (located in the inferior frontal region-usually on left side).

99
Q

Damage to the Brocca’s area would lead to?

A

Brocca’s aphasia-difficulties in producing spoken and written language; comprehension remains relatively intact.

100
Q

What is the parietal lobe responsible for?

A

Contains the somatosensory cortex-processes sensations related to touch, pressure, pain, temperature, gustation and propriception.

101
Q

Damage to the parietal lobe causes?

A
  1. ) Apraxia - inability to carry out purposeful movements (ideomotor apraxia: inability to mimic a single action in response to a request)
  2. ) somatosensory agnosia (tactile agnosia: unable to recognize familiar objects by touch; asomatognosia: failure to recognize parts of one’s own body; anosognosia: unable to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or disorder)
  3. ) Disturbance in spatial orientation - Gertsmann’s syndrome: finger agnosia, right left confusion, agraphia or dysgraphia (inability to write), acalculia (unable to perform simple mathematical calculations)
102
Q

What happens when there are lesions in the right parietal lobe (non dominant)?

A

Contralateral neglect-loss of knowledge about or interest in the left side of the body

103
Q

What happens when there are lesions in the left parietal lobe (dominant)?

A

Ideational apraxia - unable to carry out a sequence of actions; ideomotor apraxia - unable to carry out a simple action in response to a command.

104
Q

What neurotransmitters are considered to be catecholamines?

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

105
Q

What neurotransmitters are considered to be catecholamines?

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

106
Q

What neurotransmitters are inhibitory?

A

Serotonin, GABA, and endorphins

107
Q

What neurotransmitter is excitatory?

A

Glutamate

108
Q

What is the role of the cingulate cortex?

A

It is involved in attention, emotion, and the perception and subjective experience of pain. It is also responsible for the transmission of pain signals and the emotional response to the painful stimuli.

109
Q

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus located?

A

It is located in the hypothalamus

110
Q

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus responsible for?

A

It mediates the sleep-wake cycle and the circadian rhythm (associated with seasonal affective disorder)

111
Q

What is the mnemonic for the role dopamine plays?

A 
D - drive
O - psychosis
P - Parkinson’s 
A - attention 
M - motor
I - inhibition of prolactin 
N - narcotics
E - extrapyramidal

Psych (8 decks)

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