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development > Problem 3 - DONE > Flashcards

Problem 3 - DONE Flashcards

brain development

1
Q

prenatal development

A
  1. neurulation (course manual)
  2. neurogenesis
  3. cell migration
  4. differentiation
  5. axonal and dendritic growth (course manual)
  6. synaptogenesis
  7. cell death
  8. synaptic rearrangement
  9. myelination (course manual)
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2
Q

step 1: neurulation

A
  • formation of neural tube
  1. 12 h after fertilisation
  2. within a week
  3. 20 days
  4. 22 days
    a. 24 days
  5. 8 weeks
  6. 10th week onwards
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3
Q

step 1: neurulation

1.

A
  • 12 h after fertilisation: Zygote –> begins dividing

- Zygote = fertilised egg; has 46 chromosomes (23 of each parent) which contain genetic information

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4
Q

step 1: neurlation

2.

A
  • within a week: emerging embryo with 3 distinct layers –> beginning of all tissue
  • endoderm, mesoderm & ectoderm = outer cellular layer –> skin & nervous system
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5
Q

step 1: neurulation

3.

A

20 days: uneven rates of cell division at the head end form the neural groove –> midline

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6
Q

step 1: neurulation

4.

A

22 days: cell layers thicken –> grow into flat oval plate –> groove ridges form the neural tube

  • neural tube = three subdivisions that correspond to future forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
  • interior of neural tube = cerebral ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid + central canal of spinal cord
    a. 24 days: future subdivisions come apparent
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7
Q

step 1: neurulation

5.

A
  • 8 weeks: human embryo shows rudimentary beginning of most body organs
    a. head is half of the total size of the embryo –> rapid brain development
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8
Q

step 1: neurulation

6.

A
  • 10th week onwards: the embryo is now called foetus
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9
Q

step 2: neurogenesis

A

= proliferation = mitotic division of non-neuronal cells to produce neurones; production of nerve cells

  • mitosis
  • ventricular zone
  • adult neurogenesis
  • cell-cell interactions
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10
Q

step 2: neurogenesis

mitosis&ventricular zone

A
  • mitosis = process of division of somatic cells that involves duplication of DNA
  • -> gradually form closely packed layer of cells
  • ventricular zone = ependymal layer = region lining the cerebral ventricles that displays mitosis, providing neurones early in development and glial cells throughout life
  • -> all neurones & glial cells derived from cells that originate rom ventricular mitosis
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11
Q

step 2: neurogenesis

adult neurogenesis

A
  • at birth: already produced most neurones
  • postnatal increase of human brain weight –> due to growth in size of neurones, branching of dendrites, elaboration of synapses, increase in myelin, addition of glial cells
  • adult neurogenesis = creation of new neurones in the brain of an adult; replacing neurones that have died
  • -> experience increases rate
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12
Q

step 2: neurogenesis

cell-cell interactions

A

= process in which one cells affects the differentiation of other, usually neighbouring, cells

  • -> vertebrate development is shaped by environment
  • -> cells sort themselves out
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13
Q

step 3: cell migration

A

= aggregation = movement of cells from site of origin to final location

  • radial glial cells
  • CAMs (cell adhesion molecules)
  • cell-cell interactions
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14
Q

step 3: cell migration

radial glial cells

A

= glial cells that form early in development, spanning the width of the emerging cerebral hemispheres, and guide migrating neurones

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15
Q

step 3: cell migration

CAMs

A

= protein found on the surface of a cell that guides cell migration and/or axonal pathfinding

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16
Q

step 4: differentiation

A

= developmental stage in which cells acquire distinctive characteristics, such as those of neurones, as the result of expressing particular genes

  • cell reaches destination –> cell transcribes a particular subset of genes –> make the specific proteins it needs
  • cell-autonomous
  • induction
  • regulation
  • stem cells
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17
Q

step 4: differentiation

cell-autonomous

A

= referring to cell processes that are directed by the cell itself rather than being under the influence of other cell

  • contrary of cell-cell interactions/induction
  • -> intrinsic self-organisation
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18
Q

step 4: differentiation

induction

A

= process by which one set of cells influences the fate of neighbouring cells, usually by secreting a chemical factor that changes gene expression in the target cells

  • contrary of cell-autonomous
  • -> local environment/neighbouring cells
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19
Q

step 4: differentiation

regulation

A

= self-regulation = adaptive response to early injury

–> when developing individual cells compensate for missing or injured cells

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20
Q

step 4: differentiation

stem cells

A

= cell that is undifferentiated and therefore can take on the fate of any cell that a donor organism can produce

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21
Q

step 5: dendritic and axonal growth (tutor)

A

= growth of axons and dendrites

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22
Q

step 6: synaptogenesis

A

= establishment of synaptic connections as axons and dendrites grow

  • growth cones
  • filopodia
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23
Q

step 6: synaptogenesis

growth cones&filopodia

A
  • growth cones = growing tip of an axon or a dendrite
  • filopodia = very fine, tubular outgrowths from the growth cone
  • -> chemoattractants = chemicals/compounds that attract particular classes of axonal growth cones
  • -> chemorepellents = chemicals/compounds that repel particular classes of axonal growth cones
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24
Q

step 7: neuronal cell death

A

= apoptosis = developmental process during which “surplus” cells die

  • -> kind of sculpting process in emergence of other tissues
  • -> competition for connections to target structures (synaptic sites + neurotrophic factors)
  • death genes
  • neurotrophic factors
25
Q

step 7: neuronal cell death

death genes

A

= genes that are expressed only when a cell undergoes apoptosis

26
Q

step 7: neuronal cell death

neurotrophic factors

A

= trophic factor = target-derived chemical that acts as if it “feeds” certain neurones to help them survive

  • receive enough of chemical –> survive; if not –> die
  • guiding the rearrangement of synaptic connections
  • NGF = substance that markedly affects growth of neurones in spinal ganglia + ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system
  • BDNF = protein purified from the brains of animals that can keep some classes of neurones alive
27
Q

step 8: synapse rearrangement

A

= synaptic remodelling = loss of some synapses and the development of others; refinement of synaptic connections

28
Q

step 9: myelination

A

= process of myelin formation

–> allows large networks of cells to communicate rapidly

29
Q

research methods

behavioural approaches

A
  • naturalistic observations
  • structured observations
  • interviews and questionnaires
  • meta-analytic studies
30
Q

behavioural approaches

naturalistic observations

A

+ view operations as they occur
+ adapt to events as they unfold.
+ can note antecedents and consequences
of behaviours; See real-life behaviours

  • participant reactivity and observer bias
  • little control over variables
  • cause-and-effect relationships difficult to
    establish
31
Q

behavioural approaches

structured observations

A

+ more control over conditions that elicit behaviours

  • children may not react as they would in real life
32
Q

behavioural approaches

interviews and questionnaires

A

+ quick way to assess children’s knowledge or reports on behaviour

  • children/parents may not respond truthfully or accurately
  • difficult to compare responses
  • researcher bias on questions and interpretation responses
33
Q

behavioural approaches

meta-analytic studies

A

+ pools large body of research to sort out conflicting findings
+ no participants to observe

  • requires careful mathematical computation
  • variables may not have been defined identically across studies
34
Q

research methods

imaging methods

A
  • MRI
  • fMRI
  • EEG/ERP
35
Q

research designs

general

A
  • correlational design
  • experimental design
  • field experiment
  • quasi-experiment
  • (single) case-study
36
Q

general research designs

correlational design

A

+ useful when conditions do not permit manipulation

  • cannot determine cause-and- effect relationships
37
Q

general research design

experimental design

A

+ can isolate cause-and-effect relationships

  • may not yield information about real-life behaviours
38
Q

general research designs

field experiment

A

+ can isolate cause-and-effect relationships; behaviours are observed in natural settings

  • less control over treatment conditions
39
Q

general research design

quasi-experiment

A

+ takes advantage of natural separation of children into groups

  • factors other than the independent variables may be causing results
40
Q

general research design

(single) case-study

A

+ does not require large pool of participants

  • can be vulnerable to observer bias; ability to generalise to larger population may be limited
41
Q

research designs

developmental research

A
  • cross-sectional design
  • longitudinal design
  • sequential design
42
Q

developmental research designs

cross-sectional design

A

= different groups compared at one time
+ requires less time; less costly than longitudinal study.

  • cannot study individual patterns of development or the stability of traits; subject to cohort effects
43
Q

developmental research designs

longitudinal design

A

= same group compared at different times
+ can examine the stability of characteristics

  • requires a significant investment of time and resources; problems with participant attrition; can have age- history confound. Learning effects
44
Q

developmental research designs

sequential design

A

= combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal design
+ combines the advantages of both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches; can obtain information about stability of traits in a short period of time

  • same issues as longitudinal studies; but to a lesser degree
45
Q

grey matter development + functional maturation

lecture

A
  1. regions related to primary functions mature first: motor/sensory systems
  2. regions associated with spatial attention/basic language skills develop
    next: temporal/parietal areas
  3. regions related to higher-order functions mature last: prefrontal cortex
    - structural changes –> correlate directly with onset of cognitive functions
46
Q

prenatal brain development

lecture

A
  • conception till birth
  • -> brain tissue growth
  • structural development
  • most growth takes place in cerebral cortex
47
Q

stages of prenatal development

lecture

A

germinal period

  • zygote (0-14 days)
  • conception to implantation
  • cell division

embryonic period

  • embryo (2-8 weeks)
  • differentiation of most organs + body systems

foetal period

  • foetus (week 8-birth)
  • growth in size
  • genesis of processes –> help organs and systems to function
48
Q

prenatal brain tissue growth

lecture

A
  1. neurulation
    - CNS arises from neural plate: neural plate –> neural groove –> neural tube
    - within 3 weeks first tissue starts to form
  2. cell proliferation/neurogenesis
    - differentiation of neural tube
    - production of new nerve cells
  3. migration/aggregation
    - migration: supported by glial cells
    - aggregation: brain structures
49
Q

postnatal brain development

lecture

A
  • after birth
  • -> reorganisation of human cortex
  • functional/cognitive development
50
Q

reorganisation of human cortex

lecture

A
  1. dendritic/axonal growth
  2. synapse production
  3. pruning
  4. myelination
51
Q

dendritic/axonal growth - reorganisation of human cortex

lecture

A
  • axons and dendrites are formed

- at tips of both (axons and dendrites) –> growth cones

52
Q

synaptogenesis - reorganisation of human cortex

lecture

A
  • dendritic and axonal overproduction

- synapse formation dependent on early experiences

53
Q

synaptic pruning - reorganisation of human cortex

lecture

A
  • elimination of redundant synapses- developmental pruning = loss of synapses
  • -> competition
  • -> stabilisation/strengthening
  • -> elimination
54
Q

myelination - reorganisation of human cortex

lecture

A
  • myelin = fatty layer

- increases speed of impulse propagation (of action potentials along axons)

55
Q

adolescent brain development

lecture

A
  • changes in behaviour + brain
  • -> protracted development of prefrontal cortex
  • differential development of subcortical (limbic) and prefrontal control regions
56
Q

cognitive development during adolescence (12 to 18 years)

lecture

A

+ ability to think abstractly, analyse situations logically, think realistically about future/goals
+ consider hypothetical situations
+ moral reasoning

  • bad in decision making
  • less efficient in suppressing emotional reactivity (amygdala)
57
Q

brain changes that make adolescents vulnerable

lecture

A

reward

  • ‘affective pathway’
  • relatively early in adolescence
  • changes in limbic system

self regulation

  • ‘cognitive pathway’
  • relatively late in adolescence
  • changes in prefrontal cortex

risk taking

  • normal: exploration of new behaviours, identity development
  • concerning: overestimation of capacities, peer influence)
58
Q

brain regions connected to adolescent development

lecture

A

limbic system

  • nucleus accumbens
  • -> risk taking, reward seeking; impulsivity
  • amygdala
  • -> processing emotional information
  • prefrontal cortex
  • -> decision making, inhibition
59
Q

limbic system in decision making

lecture

A
  • limbic system dominating prefrontal cortical functions
  • -> decrease in reasoned thinking
  • -> increase in impulsive behaviour
  • low emotional conditions: rational = cold
  • high emotional conditions: irrational = hot

development (9 decks)

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