Problem 5 - DONE

Question 1

emotional intelligence

Answer 1

= set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains

Question 2

emotion (developmental view)

Answer 2

= characterised by neural and physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action

Question 3

theories of nature and emergence of emotions

Answer 3

• differential/discern emotions theory
• functional approach
• dynamic-systems theory

Question 4

theories

differential/discern emotions theory

Answer 4

= theory about emotions in which emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very early in life
- each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions

Question 5

theories

functional approach

Answer 5

= theory of emotion that argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal

• emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
• basic function of emotions: promote action toward achieving a goal in a given context

Question 6

theories

dynamic-systems theory

Answer 6

• novel forms of functioning arise through spontaneous coordination of components interacting repeatedly
• forming coherent ‘emotional interpretations’ –> with repeated occasion, increasing coordination of interactions, specific cognitions, emotional feelings

Question 7

emergence of emotion in early years

positive emotions

Answer 7

• first month: fleeting smile in REM sleep
• -> first smiles = reflexive, seem to be evoked by biological state
• between third and eighth month: reactive smiles to external stimuli
• by third month: social smiles (= smiles directed toward people)
• -> after 3 or 4 months: smiles + laughs
• at 7 months: selective smiles at familiar people
• by late first year: take pleasure from unexpected discrepant events
• -> first year: increasing expression of positive emotion
• -> second year: desire to share positive emotion
• -> preschool years: decline in expression of positive emotions (regulation of emotion)

Question 8

emergence of emotion in early years

negative emotions
- fear and distress

Answer 8

distress:
- furst negative emotion: generalised distress
fear:
- by 4 months: ‘fear’ of unfamiliar events
- fear of strangers: lasts until about 2 years
- fear of novel toys: increase during 12 to 16 months
- about 8 months (to 13/15 months): separation anxiety
–> fear is variable, depending on temperament, context, relationship with parents

Question 9

emergence of emotion in early years

negative emotions
- anger and sadness

Answer 9

anger:
- by 4 to 8 months: different to other negative emotions
- by first year: clearly + frequently express anger (increase until 16 month)
- by second year: better at controlling environments
sadness:
- often in same types of situations –> less frequent than anger/distress

Question 10

emergence of emotion in early years

self-conscious emotions

Answer 10

= emotions that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us (guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride)
embarrassment:
- around 15 to 24 months (asked to show off new ability)
pride:
- smiling glances when achieving something new
- by 3 years: increasingly tied to level of their performance
guilt and shame:
- guilt: associated with empathy for others; involves feelings of remorse + regret about one’s behaviour; desire to undo consequences of behaviour
- shame: does not seem to be related to concern about others; focus on themselves, feel exposed
–> which: depends on parents practices

Question 11

regulation of emotion

Answer 11

emotional self-regulation = process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states and related physiological processes, cognitions, and behaviours

Question 12

development of emotional regulation

Answer 12

• three age-related patterns of change
  (1) infants’ relying almost totally on other people to help them regulate their emotions –> being increasingly able to self-regulate during early childhood
  (2) increasing use of cognitive strategies and planful problem solving to control negative emotions
  (3) increasing selection and use of appropriate, effective regulating strategies

Question 13

development of emotional regulation

(1) shift from caregiver regulation to self-regulation

Answer 13

• by 2 months: parents regulate emotional arousal by soothing or distracting infants
• by 6 months: infants reduce distress by unselectively averting their gaze from source of distress
• -> self-soothe = engage in repetitive rubbing/stroking of body or clothing
• second year: increases in ability to inhibit motor behaviour when asked to do so (improves in toddlerhood, school)
• -> over early years: develop and improve ability to distract themselves by playing on their own when distressed

Question 14

(1) shift from caregiver regulation to self-regulation

causes of change

Answer 14

• increasing maturation of neurological systems: portion of frontal lobes central to effortfully managing attention + inhibiting thought and behaviours
• growing ability to control own attention and their movements
• language development: more likely to discuss and negotiate situation with parent
• changes in what adults expect of children: increasingly expect them to manage own emotional arousal and behaviour
• -> 9 to 12 months: show awareness of adults’ demands + begin to regulate themselves accordingly
• -> second year: compliance grows –> increasingly likely to follow simple instructions

Question 15

development of emotional regulation

(2) use of cognitive strategies to control negative emotion

Answer 15

• younger children: regulate negative emotions primarily by using behavioural strategies
• older children: use cognitive strategies and problem solving –> adjust emotionally difficult situations
• rethink goals/meaning of events –> adapt to situation
  => helps children avoid counterproductive consequences

Question 16

development of emotional regulation

(3) selection pf appropriate regulatory strategies

Answer 16

• over time: improve ability to select cognitive/behavioural strategies that are appropriate for particular situation
• reasons:
• -> awareness that appropriateness of particular coping behaviour depends on specific needs, goals, nature of problem
• -> planning and problem-solving skills improve across childhood/adolescence: better selection + use of appropriate strategies
• -> growing ability to distinguish between stressors that can be controlled + those that cannot be controlled

Question 17

relation of emotional self-regulation to social competence and adjustment

Answer 17

social competence = ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others

• well-regulated children:
• -> ability to inhibit inappropriate behaviours, use cognitive methods of controlling their emotion and behaviour: well-adjusted, liked by peers + adults
• -> ability to deal constructively with stressful situations: negotiating with others to settle conflicts, planning strategies to resolve upsetting situations, seeking social support
• -> do better in school: better able to pay attention, better behaved, like school better

Question 18

individual differences in emotion and its regulation

Answer 18

• familiar differences
• cultural differences
• temperamental differences
  => combination of genetic and environmental factors

Question 19

familiar differences

quality of parent-child relationship

Answer 19

• influences sense of security + how they feel about themselves and other people
• securely attached children:
  –> show more positive emotion, less social anxiety and anger
  more open and honest in their expressions of emotion
  –> more advanced in their understanding of emotion
• causes:
  –> parents more likely to discuss feelings/other mental state with them
  –> enhanced understanding of emotion: helps recognising when and how to regulate emotion

Question 20

familiar differences

parents’ socialisation of children’s emotional responding

Answer 20

socialisation = process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture

• socialisation through:
  (1) expression of emotion with their children and other people
  (2) reactions to their children’s expression of emotion
  (3) discussions with their children about emotion/ emotional regulation
• -> often interrelated; affect emotional development and social competence

Question 21

parents’ socialisation

parents’ expression of emotion

Answer 21

• influence views about themselves and others
• provides a model of when and how to express emotion
• -> affect understanding of what types of emotional expressions are appropriate + effective in interpersonal relations
• expression of positive/negative emotions at home: associated with specific outcomes in children
• children themselves influence emotional expression at home

Question 22

parents’ socialisation

parents’ reaction to children’s emotions

Answer 22

• affect emotional expressivity, social competence, adjustment
• dismissing children’s expression of sadness/anxiety: communicate that their feelings are not valid
• supportive when children are upset: help to regulate their emotional arousal + find ways to express emotions constructively

Question 23

parents’ socialisation

parents’ discussion of emotion

Answer 23

• teach them about the meanings of emotions, circumstances in which they should/shouldn’t be expressed, consequences of them expressing/not expressing them
• emotion coaching = parents not only discuss emotions with their children but also help them learn ways of coping with their emotions and expressing them appropriately
• own characteristics: affect degree to which adults talk about emotions with them

Question 24

cultural differences

Answer 24

• most of same basic emotions in all cultures
• cultural variation which certain emotions are expressed
• reasons:
  –> genetic: people in different racial/ethnic groups have somewhat different temperaments
  –> diversity in parenting practices
  –> promotion/discouragement of specific emotions: reflected in parents’ socialisation of emotion
  –> parents’ ideas about usefulness of various emotions
  => norms, values, circumstances of culture/subculture

Question 25

temperament

Answer 25

temperament = constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self- regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time

• evident early in life –> some may not emerge until childhood or adolescence + change at different ages
• changes in when and how much temperament is expressed at different ages: occur because genes switch on and off throughout development
• constitutionally based –> genetically inherited characteristics, aspects of biological functioning (neural development, hormonal responding)

Question 26

studies on temperament

Answer 26

• Thomas and Chess:
• -> easy babies
• -> difficult babies
• -> slow-to-warm-up babies
• six dimensions to capture infant temperament:
• -> fearful distress/inhibition = distress, withdrawal in new situations; their duration
• -> irritable distress = fussiness, anger, frustration (especially if child is not allowed to do what he/she wants)
• -> attention span and persistence = duration of orienting toward objects/events of interest
• -> activity level = how much an infant moves
• -> positive affect/approach = smiling, laughing, approach to people, degree of cooperativeness/manageability
• -> rhythmicity = regularity, predictability of child’s bodily functions (eating, sleeping)

Question 27

stability of temperament over time

Answer 27

• traits that remain fairly stable over time
• traits that seem to increase in stability with age
• -> more prone to negative emotion at 3: more emotionally negative at 8

Question 28

role of temperament in social skills and maladjustment

Answer 28

• differences in aspects of temperament: associated with differences in social competence, maladjustment
• Caspi: negative/unregulated as young children: as adolescents/young adults have more problems with adjustment
• ultimate adjustment depends on how well their temperament fits the particular environment they are in (goodness of fit)

Question 29

children’s understanding of emotion

Answer 29

• identifying emotions of others
• understanding the causes and dynamics of emotions
• understandings real and false emotions
  => key influence on children’s emotional reactions + regulation of emotion
  –> understanding of how to identify emotions, understanding of what emotions mean, social functions of emotions, what factors affect emotional experience

Question 30

identifying emotions of others

Answer 30

• first step of emotional knowledge development
• by 3 months: distinguish facial expressions from happiness, surprise, anger
• by 7 months: discriminate expressions like fear, sadness, interest
• -> perceive others’ emotional expressions as meaningful
• by (5 1/2 month) 7 to 12 months: demonstrate relating facial expressions of emotion and emotional tones of voice to events in environment
• -> social referencing = use of a parent’s or other adult’s facial expression
or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
• by 14 months: emotion-related informations from social referencing has effect on children’s touching of the object
• expressions displayed in pictures/puppets
• -> 2 years: label happiness
• -> 3 to 4: label anger, fear and sadness
• -> late preschool/early school years: label surprise and disgust
• -> early mid-elementary school: label pride, shame, guilt

Question 31

understanding causes and dynamics of emotion

Answer 31

• important for understanding one’s own and others’ behaviour –> regulating own behaviour
• ability to understand circumstances that evoke emotions
• -> age 3: identifying happiness
• -> age 4: identifying sadness
• -> age 5: identify anger, fear, surprise
• -> after age 7: identifying pride, guilt, shame, embarrassment, jealousy
• with age: understand that memory cues can trigger emotions associated with past events
• -> explain own and others’ emotional reactions
• in elementary school: better understanding about how, when, why emotions occur
• -> people can experience more than one emotion at same time
• -> thinking positively improves one’s emotion

Question 32

understanding of real and false emotions

Answer 32

• realisation that emotions people express do not necessarily reflect their true feelings
• by 3 years: beginnings of realisation
• by 5 years: improving understanding of false emotion
• between 4 to 6 years: increasingly understand that people can be misled by others’ facial expressions
• -> growing understanding of display rules (= social group’s informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions)
• factors:
• -> increases in children’s cognitive capacities
• -> social factors affect understanding of display rules (gender stereotype, culture)
• -> parents’ beliefs and behaviours