2.2.1 Representative function

Question 1

4

Describe the significance of the incumbency in elections

Answer 1

• Name recognition attracts much higher level of donations
• Can afford to spend less in order to get people to vote for them
• Provided with website to explain policy beliefs, successes and provide easy way for constituents to contact them
• ‘franking requests’

Question 2

1

Give an example that demonstrates how incumbents have to spend less in re-election bids

Answer 2

• Mitch McConnell spent $34 per vote in 2020 Senate election compared to $92 per vote of Dem challenger

Question 3

2

Describe stats that show the re-election rates in Congress

Answer 3

• House: over 90%
• Senate: over 80%

Question 4

5

List factors that affect voting behaviour in Congress

Answer 4

• Parties
• Congressional caucuses
• Constituency
• Pressure groups
• Lobbyists

Question 5

3

Why may Congress members be loyal to their parties?

Answer 5

• Run in party-based primaries where beliefs are ideology-tested
• Likely to be elected in large part due to political allegiance and beleifs of constituents
• Influence of nominal party head

Question 6

5

Describe the rise of partisan politics in congressional voting behaviour

Answer 6

• Party-line voting increased
• Members less likely to break ranks to maintain re-election chances
• Fewer members falling into into ideological centre
• Suggests growing importance as party as voting factor
• Coincides with polarisation of American public

Question 7

2

Describe limits to party representation in Congress

Answer 7

• No third-party representation in current Congress
• Democrats and Republcians made up of differing factions, so lack cohesive ideology

Question 8

3

Describe Congressional caucuses

Answer 8

• Groups consisting of Congress members who share common interests or policy goals
• Fight for population group, industry or ideology
• Do not always vote together, but very powerful when issue in Congress affects their caucus

Question 9

3

Give examples of congressional caucuses and their influence

Answer 9

• Population group: Congressional Black Caucus - represents AA members of Congress - set up ‘war room’ to defend Jackson after nomination to SC
• Industry: Congressional Steel Caucus - encouraged Trump’s 25% tariff on foreign steel imports to protect US industry
• Ideology: House Freedom Caucus - advocate small state, populism (anti-immigration), social conservatism, Tea Party beliefs

Question 10

3

Describe how constituencies affect voting behaviour in Congress

Answer 10

• Represent specific cultural, economic and social interests of constituents
• US Primary system means constituents, not central party HQ, determine who represents party in election
• e.g. 10-term incumbent Joe Crowley defeated by AOC in 2018 primary

Question 11

3

Give an example of a Congress member representing the interests of their constituency

Answer 11

• Brady amendments to Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 2018 defined copyrighted songs as capital assets, subjecting them to lower tax rate
• Made at request of Nashville Representative Diane Black
• Nashville famed for songwriitng

Question 12

2

Describe limits to the effect of constituencies on voting behaviour in Congress

Answer 12

• Activities of Congress members outside of Congress, especially prevalent Senators, more important to constituents than national politics
• e.g. Ted Cruz criticised for trip to Cancun in 2021 amid harsh winter storms in Texas

Question 13

2

Give an example of a pressure group exerting influence over voting behaviour

Answer 13

• NRA uses rating system based on members’ voting histories to determine campaign funding support
• Over 80% of candidates funded by NRA won House/Senate races in 2012

Question 14

5

Describe how lobbyists affect voting behaviour in Congress

Answer 14

• May promise campaign donations or help with mobilising supporters from their clients
• US Chamber of Commerce spent $82m in 2020
• $3bn annually spent on lobbying since 2008
• Vast amount spent on lobbying suggests it must have some influence
• 1.8k clients lobbied Build Back Better Act

Question 15

Do an essay on ‘to what extent is x the main reason for voting behaviour in Congress’

Question 16

3

Describe centrist Congress members

Answer 16

• May oppose party lines
• Tend to represent a state that regularly supports the party opposite to their own
• e.g. Joe Manchin - West Virginia

Question 17

3

Describe the significance of Joe Manchin

Answer 17

• former moderate Democrat West Virginia Senator (Republican state) - now independent
• Opposed Obama energy policies, repeal of Don’t Say Don’t Tell in 2010
• Wielded large influence in 2021-23 Congress 50-50 split - acted as swing vote alongside Krysten Sinema

Question 18

3

Describe the importance of Congressional diversity

Answer 18

• Ensures pluralism of diverse population
• Brngs diversity of thought
• Individuals in Congress who share experience of people they represent

Question 19

4

Describe positives for diversity in Congress in recent years

Answer 19

• Notable increase in representation for women, AAs and Hispanics
• AA most appropriately represented in Congress: 11.6% members are AA, roughly equal to 2020 census data (12.4%)
• 13 openly LGBT Congress members
• 18 foreign-born members - 17 in House, 1 in Senate (Mazie Hirono (Dem) in Hawaii, born in Japan)

Question 20

3

Describe majority-minority districts

Answer 20

• District where minority national group makes up majority population of district
• More likely they will elect representative of their minority group
• 136 majority-minority districts after 2020 redistricting

Question 21

5

Describe negatives for diversity in Congress in recent years

Answer 21

• Most AA members are in less-important House
• Remains gulf between female representation in Congress (27%) and makeup of population (51%)
• Average age considerably higher
• 94% of Congress representatives have college degree
• 469 members are Christian - lower than before, but still dominate

Question 22

4

Describe stats that show the age of Congress members

Answer 22

• House: 54 years
• Senate: 64 years
• Well above average age in population, 38.5 years
• e.g. Diane Fienstein served as CA Senator until death in 2023 at age of 90

Question 23

3

Outline the difference between descriptive and functional representation

Answer 23

• Descriptive - share descriptive characteristics with group (age, gender, ethnicity, etc)
• Functional - represent economic or social groups within wider community
• Done through lobbyists or pressure groups who represent views of under-represented in legislature

Question 24

4

List some points you could make for the argument that Congress is representative

Answer 24

• Electability - accountability to constituency, esp for HoR
• Pork-barrel politics to represent districts/state
• Longer senate terms allow for representation of national issues
• Increased congressional diversity

Question 25

# 5 List some points you could make for the argument that Congress is unrepresentative

Answer 25

* Descriptive diversity * Dominated by incumbency * Local issue focus leads to gridlock * Two-main parties dominate * State representation in both chambers