Define reciprocity
Infants co-ordinate their response to the caregiver in a kind of conversational manner. Operate in a rhythm as though taking turns.
Define interactional synchrony
An interaction between caregivers and infants in which both parties reflect each others actions and emotions in a synchronised way
Describe Meltzoff and Moore’s 1977 study on caregiver-infant interactions
4 different stimuli - 3 facial expressions, 1 hand gesture. Initially, babies couldn’t respond (dummy in mouth), then they were able to respond and this was recorded: responses to mouth opening, tongue protrusion, and the termination of both actions. 2 independent observers reviewed the videos twice - obtained inter-rater and intra-rater reliability of +0.92.
Findings: 2-3 week old babies imitate facial and hand gestures
Describe one supporting and one critical study to Meltzoff and Moore’s findings
Supporting: Murray and Trevarthen (1985) found 3 day olds exposed to videos of mother not in real-time were distressed when they received no response - imitation is innate
Critical: Piaget (1962) said all imitation before 1 years old is due to desire to receive a reward rather than an intentional response
State two advantages of Meltzoff and Moore’s study
- Abravenal and Deyoung (1991) conducted study with robotic objects exhibiting mouth opening or tongue protrusion - babies showed little response
- Valuable research as these interactions form the basis of social development. Meltzoff developed the ‘like me’ hypothesis from findings - imitation is a method to understand others
State two disadvantages of Meltzoff and Moore’s study
- Difficult to distinguish between specific and general behavioural - issues with reliability
- Individual differences - Isabella et al (1989) found more strongly attached individuals illustrate more interactional synchrony
Describe Brazelton’s research into reciprocity
Suggested that this basic rhythm is a precursor to later conversation. The caregiver anticipates the infant’s response and acts appropriately - sensitivity to infant behaviour lays foundation for later.
State and describe the stages of attachment
- Pre-attachment (0-3 months) - at 6 weeks prefer humans to inanimate objects
- Indiscriminate (3-6/7 months) - no preference to certain adults, become more social
- Discriminate (7/8 months) - formed primary attachment - show stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, joy on reunion
- Multiple - (9 months +) - stranger and separation anxiety extended to other attachments
Describe Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study on the stages of attachment
60 babies and their mothers studied over 1.5 years - conducted interviews and overt observations every 4 weeks for a year, and then after 18 months. Mothers kept diaries, noted down responses to 7 situations and intensity of protests on a 4 point scale .
Findings: 65% primary attachment was mother
30% joint mother and father (3% of 30% only to father). Infants with intense attachment had overly sensitive mothers
State three advantages of Schaffer and Emerson’s study
- Longitudinal
- Natural observation - high ecological validity
- No ethical issues - consent obtained
State three disadvantages of Schaffer and Emerson’s study
- Can’t generalise - all from one social class
- Prone to social desirability bias from mothers
- Bowlby (1969) said babies have playmates also and are distressed when they leave - hard to distinguish
Describe Rutter’s (1995) theory of multiple attachments
Proposed the model of all attachments being of equal importance (contrary to Bowlby) that combine to form the internal working model, and can be formed for multiple purposes.
Discuss the role of the father
Schaffer and Emerson found that fathers are less likely to be the primary attachment due to spending less time with children. Other researchers found the father is more of a playmate, due to a mother’s biological predisposition to be nurturing. Geiger (1996) found father’s play is more exciting than mother’s. Lamb (1987) found children seek fathers when in positive state, but mothers when distressed and in need of comfort
State an advantage of research into the role of the father
Importance of the father was shown in Grossman’s 2002 longitudinal study on the relationship between infant and adolescent attachments. Found that the quality of father’s play as an infant is related to the quality of adolescent attachment
State two disadvantages of research into the role of the father
- Inconsistent findings - different researchers exploring different questions of whether the father is a playmate or a primary/secondary attachment
- Children raised by single mothers or lesbian couples develop no differently - father not important?
Describe the learning theory of attachment
Classical and Operant conditioning form the ‘Cupboard Love theory’, with the focus on the providing of food.
Classical: associates caregiver with pleasure of food
Operant: primary reinforcer - satisfies biological needs (milk)
secondary reinforcer - satisfies materialistic needs (caregiver)
Social learning - observe parent’s affectionate behaviour and imitates
State an advantage of the learning theory of attachments
Provides a possible reason as to why attachments form - most babies form strong attachments to those that feed them
State two disadvantages of the learning theory of attachments
- Research shows attachment doesn’t have to only be about food - Lorenz, Harlow
- Reductionist
Describe Lorenz’s 1935 study on imprinting (animal attachments)
Clutch of goose eggs split into two equal groups - one incubated, other hatched naturally. Geese marked and placed under box then released - those incubated went to Lorenz, others went to mother. Geese imprinted on Lorenz.
Findings: imprinting occurs 4-25hrs after hatching
Describe Lorenz’s research into sexual imprinting
Investigated the relationship between imprinting and adult courtship. He noted that imprinting is irreversible as one of the geese that imprinted on him would sleep in his bed and tried to mate with him
State two advantages of Lorenz’s study on imprinting
- Guiton (1966) found that adult male chickens tried to mate with rubber gloves that were used to feed them
- Lorenz found peacocks exposed to tortoises after hatching only aimed courtship at tortoises
State two disadvantages of Lorenz’s study on imprinting
- Animal study - can’t generalise to humans
2. Guiton found the chickens’ behaviour could be reversed
Describe Harlow’s 1959 study on animal attachments
16 monkeys (4 in each condition) separated from mothers and put in cage with either: 1) a towelling mother w/ milk, wire mother w/out 2) towelling mother w/out milk, wire mother w/milk 3) towelling mother w/milk 4) wire mother w/milk. Time with each mother recorded. Findings: monkeys with only wire mother were distressed (diarrhea). Monkeys sought comfort from towelling mother - clung on when feeding from wire mother, high exploration with towelling mother when put in large cage.
State two advantages of Harlow’s 1959 study
- Increased knowledge of attachments - valuable
- Caused the ethical guidelines to become stricter in regards to animal rights - American animal liberation movement developed
- Practical applications - helped social workers understand the risk factors of child neglect
