Chapter 13 - Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood

Question 1

Erikson’s stage

Answer 1

Industry versus inferiority

Redirect from make believe to real accomplishments

Resolved when experienced lead children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks

Inferiority is reflected in pessimism and little confidence

Developments: positive but realistic self-concept, pride in accomplishment, moral responsibility, cooperative participation.

Question 2

industriousness

Answer 2

The energetic pursuit of meaningful achievement

A major change in middle childhood

Question 3

Self-Concept

A part of self understanding

Answer 3

By middle childhood, children
Can describe themselves in terms of competencies and tendencies, rather than just specific behaviours
Mention both positive and negative traits
Use social comparisons as a means of judging themselves

Question 4

Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Influences on Self-Concept

Answer 4

IMPACT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ON SELF-CONCEPT
Decentration allows children to combine typical experiences and behaviours into stable psychological dispositions
blend positive and negative traits
compare themselves with many peers simultaneously

SOCIAL FACTORS
Improvements in perspective-taking skills—the looking-glass self
Internalizing the expectations of others—formation of an ideal self that they use to evaluate the real self
Elaborative parent-child conversations—building more complex, favourable, and coherent self-concepts
Change in relative importance of feedback from parents v friends

CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Western parents emphasize separateness and self-assertion
Asian parents stress harmonious interdependence

Question 5

During middle childhood, self-esteem

Answer 5

Becomes more realistic
Differentiates into different aspects of the self
They are able to evaluate these separately, and combine them into an overall self-esteem
Note that the different aspects don’t impact global self-esteem equally

Question 6

Self-esteem tends to decline during the first few years of elementary school

Answer 6

Children receive more competence-related feedback, and they are often judged in relation to others
Eventually, children balance social comparisons with personal achievement goals
From fourth grade on, self-esteem rises for most young people

Question 7

Influences on Self-Esteem

Answer 7

CULTURE HAS AN IMPACT ON SELF-ESTEEM
Which traits are valued? (physical appearance – self-worth)
Relatively value of confidence v modesty
Gender stereotypes influencing feelings of competence across domains
Contact with extended family, sense of ethnic pride
Extent to which the child’s SES and ethnic groups are represented in his/her school

CHILD-REARING HAS AN IMPACT
Authoritative parenting tends to lead to higher self-esteem
Controlling parents communicate a sense of inadequacy to children
Overly indulgent parenting is linked to unrealistically high self-esteem, which can lead to adjustment problems

Achievement and self-esteem is a bidirectional relationship

The attributions we make about our achievements influence our self-esteem
Mastery-oriented attributions
Learned helplessness

Question 8

Mastery-oriented

Answer 8

Mastery-oriented attributions involve an incremental view of ability, and a tendency to try hard, whether past efforts have resulted in success or failure
Improve by trying hard and cand be counted on when facing new challenges
Learning goals

Question 9

Learned helplessness

Answer 9

Learned helplessness involves a fixed view of ability, and leads to giving up, and choosing to tackle only the easiest tasks
Attribute failures to ability and successes to external factors like luck
“fixed view of ablitiy” that cant be impoved by hard work
Performance goals

Question 10

Attribution retraining

Answer 10

Attribution retraining - an intervention that uses adult feedback to encourage learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure through effort
Children are given the opportunity to experience both success and failure, with feedback leading them to understand that both ability and effort (not chance) impact their outcomes
Instruction in effective strategies and self-regulation is often provided

Question 11

We’re more likely to see a mastery-oriented child when adults

We’re more likely to see a helpless child when adults

Answer 11

We’re more likely to see a mastery-oriented child when adults
Hold an incremental view of ability
Praise or criticize the child’s individual strategies or behaviours

We’re more likely to see a helpless child when adults
Hold a fixed view of ability
Praise or criticize the child as a whole

Question 12

Self-Conscious Emotions

Answer 12

Self-conscious emotions even when no adult is present to witness their actions (personal responsibility)
Pride in a new accomplishment
Guilt about intentional wrongdoing (but no longer about mishaps)
Specific aspects of self as leading to pride or guilt
Shame when a violation of a standard is not under their control

Question 13

3 areas of emotional development

Answer 13

Self-Conscious Emotions
Emotional Understanding
Emotional Self-Regulation

Question 14

Emotional Understanding

Answer 14

In middle childhood, we
Explain emotion by referring to internal states, such as thoughts, rather than to external events
Learn that we can experience multiple emotions at once, and these emotions may be a mix of positive and negative, and of different intensities
Begin to understand that expressions may not reflect true feelings
Can reconcile contradictory facial and situational cues in figuring out another’s emotions
Understand that how we feel about a situation may be altered on what the situation could have been

Adults’ sensitivity to children’s feelings and willingness to discuss emotions are important to development here
Assuming sensitive and open communication, we begin to see an increase in empathy
This is also assisted by improvements in perspective-taking
Note that emotional understanding and empathy are linked to favourable social relationships and prosocial behaviour

Question 15

Emotional Self-Regulation

Answer 15

By age 10, most children can switch adaptively between these problem-centred coping and emotion-centred coping

School-age children
Are more likely than preschoolers to use internal strategies to regulate emotion
Have learned from others the socially approved ways to display negative emotion
Verbal stratagies

Question 16

problem-centred coping

Answer 16

Problem-focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently directly reducing the stress.

Problem focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor.

Question 17

emotion-centred coping

Answer 17

Emotion-focused coping involves trying to reduce the negative emotional responses associated with stress such as embarrassment, fear, anxiety, depression, excitement and frustration. This may be the only realistic option when the source of stress is outside the person’s control.

Question 18

Emotional self-efficacy

Answer 18

Emotional self-efficacy - a feeling of being in control of their emotional experience
we see this in school-age children if emotional self-regulation has developed well
It fosters a positive self-image and an optimistic outlook

Question 19

Emotional self-regulation is influenced by

Answer 19

Parental responses
Sensitive and helpful responses to distress versus hostile or dismissive attitudes

Culture
Focus on controlling emotional behaviour, having a calm and peaceful disposition, or on self-expression

Question 20

Moral Development

Answer 20

There are great advances in moral development during middle childhood
Internalize rules for good conduct – they become more independent and trustworthy
Children at this age can reason more effectively than can younger children
They have much stronger perspective taking skills

Question 21

Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding

Answer 21

Flexible appreciation of moral rules
In middle childhood, children’s evaluations of actions become more influenced by intentions and social norms
Judgments of violations of rules or conventions are now based in part on whether or not the rule seems to be purposeful and justified
Context becomes a factor
The knowledge of the transgressor matters in their evaluations

Question 22

Understanding Individual Rights

Answer 22

In middle childhood, children
Believe that choices of hairstyle, friends, and leisure activities are up to the individual
View freedom of speech and religion as individual rights, even when denied by law
Regard laws that discriminate against individuals as wrong and worthy of violating
Do believe that some decisions should be made by those who are better equipped to make them
Usually choose fairness over personal gain, if the fairness issue is brought to their attention

Question 23

Cultural and Moral Understanding

Answer 23

Across diverse cultures, children
Believe adults have no right to interfere in children’s personal matters, such as how they spend free time
Believe that a child with no authority should still be obeyed when giving a fair and caring directive
Negatively evaluate an adult’s order to engage in immoral acts

Question 24

Children pick up information about group status from

Answer 24

Implicit messages

Question 25

In-group and out-group bias

Answer 25

White see white as better Minority see white as better Inner traits become more important with age and negative attitudes towards minority’s decrease The extent to which children hold racual bias varies based on personal and situational factors: - A fixed view of personality - Overly high self-esteem - A social world where people are sorted in to groups

Question 26

Reduce prejudice therough

Answer 26

Intergroup contact (cooperitve, long term)

Question 27

Peer Relations

Answer 27

School age children often spend significant time with peers Peer contact contributes to perspective taking and understanding of self and others, which then enhance peer interaction Compared to preschoolers, school age children Resolve conflicts more effectively, using persuasion and compromise Share more, help more, and engage in other prosocial acts more Show declines in aggression, especially physical attacks Can acquire social skills: cooperation, leadership, followship, loyalty, collective goals, social oginization.

Question 28

By middle childhood, most children say that excluding someone from a peer group is

Answer 28

Wrong, if it’s based on unconventional appearance or behaviour Justified, if a peer threatens group functioning by acting disruptively or by lacking skills to participate in a valued group activity This does not, however, mean that children don’t unjustly exclude others

Question 29

Peer Groups

Answer 29

Peer groups - social units of peers who generate unique values and standards for behaviour and a social structure of leaders and followers Peer groups organize on the basis of Proximity Similarity in sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, popularity, and aggression

Question 30

unjustly exclude others

Answer 30

Some children are denied ‘membership’ Sometimes former ‘members’ are ousted from a group If they were unkind to outgroup members before, it may be difficult for them to find a new pear group Socially anxious children often become increasingly peer-avoidant when excluded from a group, and thus more isolated Excluded children have fewer opportunities to acquire socially competent behaviour, and often decline in class participation and academic standing as well

Question 31

School-age children’s friendships involve

Answer 31

Mutually agreed-on relationships Liking each other’s personal qualities Responding to one another’s needs and desires Trust Acts of kindness Support Violations of trust are considered particularly serious breaches of friendship

Question 32

Children tend to select friends that resemble them in terms of

Answer 32

``` Age Sex race Ethnicity SES Personality Peer popularity Academic achievement Prosocial behaviour ```

Question 33

Friendships

Answer 33

Friendships are more selective now than they were in preschool Most children claim fewer friends in middle childhood than they did as preschoolers Girls tend to have fewer friends than do boys, but their friendships are closer High-quality friendships are fairly stable throughout middle childhood Children learn the importance of emotional commitment through long-term friendships They begin to realize, for instance, that close relationships can survive disagreements in both parties are secure in their liking for one another and consider both parties’ needs in resolving conflict

Question 34

The impact of friendships on development depends on the friends

Answer 34

Prosocial friends lead to more prosocial behaviour Antisocial friends lead to more antisocial behaviour Aggressive girls often have friendships that involve a lot of jealousy, conflict, and betrayal Aggressive boys often have frequent expressions of anger, coercive statements, physical attacks, and enticements to rule-breaking behaviour

Question 35

Four basic categories of peer acceptance that 2/3s of children fall in to:

Answer 35

Popular children – positive votes Rejected children – negative votes Controversial children – both votes Neglected children – little votes

Question 36

Consider, however, that school-age children who have peer-relationship problems have often experienced family stress

Answer 36

Low income Insensitive child rearing Coercive discipline Their outcomes are likely not due entirely to popularity issues

Question 37

2 types of popular children

Answer 37

Popular children can be popular-prosocial (social and academic competence) or popular-antisocial Popular-antisocial are admired rather than liked (sophiciticated but devious social skills) They often become less popular with age, and may eventually be rejected if they remain aggressive

Question 38

Peer Acceptance

Answer 38

Peer acceptance - the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates as a worthy social partner Unlike friendship, acceptance and liking aren’t necessarily mutual ``` Assessments of peer acceptance usually involve measures of Social preferences (who you like) Social prominence (who you admire) ``` Four basic categories of peer acceptance A rejected status, in particular, is predictive of negative outcomes Effects on affect and self esteem Effects on performance, attendance, and behaviour in school Associated with criminality in emerging adulthood

Question 39

Rejected children may experience exclusion as early as kindergarten They then have

Answer 39

Fewer opportunities to learn social skills Further impairment to their biased social information processing, which can heighten hostility Lower classroom participation Higher feelings of loneliness Faltering academic achievement, and a desire to avoid school

Question 40

Rejected children, because they’re at risk, are often the focus on study Interventions for these children often involve

Answer 40

Coaching, modelling, and reinforcing positive social skills Academic help, to combat low self-esteem and the negative reactions to teachers and classmates this can support Training in perspective taking and social problem solving (unaware of their poor social skills and do not take responsibility for social failures) Interventions focused on parent-child interactions

Question 41

2 types of Rejected children

Answer 41

Rejected children may be rejected-aggressive or rejected-withdrawn Rejected-aggressive often show a hostile attributional bias (deficient in perspective taking) Rejected-withdrawn children often hold negative expectations for how peers will treat them

Question 42

Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs

Answer 42

During middle childhood, stereotyped beliefs spread from activities and occupations to more subtle areas such as personality traits and achievement Stereotyping of personality traits is adultlike by around age 11 These distinctions arise from observing differences in behaviour and from the way adults treat children and each other Think about the expectations for behaviour that parents convey to sons versus daughters Shortly after beginning elementary school, children begin to make judgments about which subjects and skills are “masculine” and “feminine” Parents tend to perceive their children’s abilities as coinciding with gender stereotypes, and this can influence achievement Still, children develop a more flexible view of what males and females can do during middle childhood, and become more flexible into adolescence Sex isn’t a certain predictor of traits or behaviour Gender typing as social, rather than biological However, they continue to disapprove of crossing gender lines, especially for boys

Question 43

Gender Identity and Behaviour

Answer 43

In middle childhood, boys tend to increase in their identification with “masculine” traits, while girls tend to decline in their identification with “feminine” traits School-age children also begin to develop self-evaluations of their Gender typicality Gender contentedness Felt pressure to conform to gender roles: the degree to which they feel parents and peers disapprove of their gender-related traits

Question 44

Gender typicality

Answer 44

Gender typicality: the degree to which they feel similar to others of the same gender

Question 45

Gender contentedness

Answer 45

Gender contentedness: the degree to which they feel comfortable with their gender assignment

Question 46

Felt pressure to conform to gender roles

Answer 46

Felt pressure to conform to gender roles: the degree to which they feel parents and peers disapprove of their gender-related traits

Question 47

Peers, Gender Typing, and Culture

Answer 47

Most children in middle childhood regard excluding an agemate from peer group activities on the basis of gender as unfair They don’t regard it as being as bad as excluding on the basis of factors such as ethnicity, though Some say that gender differences in interests and communication styles would justify exclusion

Question 48

Coregulation

Answer 48

Coregulation - a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making This works when Parents and children have a warm, cooperative relationship Parents guide and monitor from a distance, and effectively communicate expectations Children inform parents of their whereabouts, activities, and problems

Question 49

Parent-Child Relationships

Answer 49

Amount of time spent with parents declines dramatically, though parents still feel a strong need to ‘keep tabs’ Child rearing becomes easier for parents, if they have established an authoritative style in early childhood Reasoning is more effective with school-age children than with younger children Note that children are more likely to listen to parents’ perspectives in situations where compliance is vital if the parents have allowed the children some autonomy when feasible The push for autonomy does not mean a lack of need for parental support, nor do children believe that it does Children often describe parents as the most influential people in their lives They turn to parents for affection, advice, enhancement of self-worth and help with everyday problems Note that parents who are warm and involved, monitor their child’s activities, and avoid coercive discipline, have children who are academically and socially more competent

Question 50

Fears and Anxieties

Answer 50

In middle childhood, children still may fear the dark, thunder and lightning, animals, and supernatural beings New fears are added, though Children often mull over fears at bedtime, leading to an increase in nighttime fear in the 7-9 age range Children mentioned fear following exposure to negative information In the media. Parents don’t monitor enough. Most children can handle most fears constructively They develop more sophisticated emotional self-regulation strategies in middle childhood, and can use these to handle their fears Because of this, fears decline at the end of middle childhood, especially for girls

Question 51

Phobia

Answer 51

Phobia - an intense, unmanageable fear that leads to persistent avoidance of the feared situation Seen in about 5% school-aged children Children with inhibited temperaments experience phobias 5 to 6 times as often as other children

Question 52

New fears

Answer 52

``` The possibility of personal harm, through being robbed, stabbed, or shot War and disasters Academic failure Separation from parents Parents’ health Physical injuries The possibility of dying Peer rejection ```

Question 53

Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood

Answer 53

There’s only a modest relationship between stressful life experiences and psychological disturbance in childhood There are personal, family, school, and community factors that can foster resilience in children… Personal factors Easygoing, sociable temperament Above-average intelligence Favourable self-esteem Persistence in the face of challenge and pleasure in mastery Good emotional self-regulation and flexible coping strategies Family factors Warm, trusting relationship with at least one parent Authoritative child-rearing style Positive discipline, avoidance of coercive tactics Warm, supportive sibling relationships School factors Teachers who are warm, helpful, and stimulating, who encourage students to collaborate, and who emphasize effort and self-improvement Lessons in tolerance and respect and codes against bullying, which promote positive peer relationships and gratifying friendships Extracurricular activities, including sports and social service pursuits, that strengthen physical, cognitive, and social skills High-quality after-school programmes that protect children’s safety and offer stimulating, skill-building activities Community factors An adult—such as an extended-family member, teacher, or neighbour—who provides warmth and social support and is a positive coping model Stability of neighbourhood residents and services—safe outdoor play areas, community centres, and religious organizations—that relieve parental stress and encourage families and neighbours to share leisure time Youth groups—scouting, clubs, religious youth groups, and other organized activities—that promote positive peer relationships and prosocial behaviour