Give a sentence definition for,
Deterrence theories
Rational choice theory
Routine activities theory
Deterrence theories - certain factors influence an individual’s decision to commit a crime and the legal system can be used to affect that decision
Rational choice theory - people break the law because they believe crime will provide a reward
Routine activities theory - crime will not occur unless there is a motivated offender, a suitable target, and ineffective guardianship of that target
What is Deterrence Theory - what is it rooted in? How effective is the law as a deterrent?
Rooted in Beccaria’s Classical theory of crime –> ppl are rational beings who consider the consequences of their behaviour
- punishment should be severe enough to deter people from breaking the law, but should also be proportionate to the nature of the crime - and should be swift and certain
Effectiveness:
- deterrence is effective to some extent
- research shows the CERTAINTY of punishment is more important than the SEVERITY
(but it’s easier for governments to pass tougher sentencing laws than to increase certainty of punishment)
Explain Durlauf & Nagin’s review of the question, does imprisonment deter crime?
- found that imprisonment may actually increase an individual’s likelihood of future criminal behaviour (recidivism)
–> Offenders may adjust to prison life, so the threat of prison does not deter them
–> Imprisonment may create feelings of resentment against society that result in increased criminality when offenders are released
–> may learn criminal values and skills in prison - turning 18 in the US when adult sentences take effect has little deterrent effect on crime
*essentially, long prison sentences are difficult to justify on a deterrence-based crime prevention basis
Why may harsher sentences not deter crime?
- most offenders don’t think they’re at risk of getting caught
- Many offenders have alcohol, drug, or mental health issues that may lead them to make bad decisions
- Offenders are not always aware of the sentences they face if convicted
- Prosecutors and judges find ways to evade penalties that they feel are too severe, such as mandatory minimum sentences. Plea bargaining is a common practice
Explain the debate and different policies around mandatory minimum sentences
- california’s three strikes legislation of 1994 has cause serious prison overcrowding (had to release 32000 inmates) and has cost $20 billion –> did not decline crime rates
- Between 2006 and 2015, the Canadian government imposed or increased mandatory minimum sentences for many crimes, including marijuana-related offences –> biggest failure of mandatory sentencing and other deterrence policies is the war on drugs –> even a high threat of death does not deter drug dealers
*Canadian courts have overturned parts of the Harper Government’s tough-on-crime laws on the grounds they violate Charter rights - Even the minority of studies concluding that longer sentences help reduce crime do not show a sufficient impact to justify the enormous costs of growing prison populations
Explain two possible methods for Increasing the Certainty of Punishment
*There is now a substantial body of research that shows that the certainty of punishment exerts a significant deterrent effect
Hot Spots Policing:
- focusing police resources on high-crime areas can reduce crime by increasing certainty of arrest
Individualized Deterrence:
- Offenders who are heavily involved in criminal activity are individually warned that their actions are being monitored and that future violations of the law will be dealt with immediately. Extra police and/or probation resources are added to ensure that the legal system keeps its promises
ex. Boston’s Operation Ceasefire:
- Boston had high homicide rates among young black males
- individuals told that violent behaviour would not be tolerated and were offered services to help them get out of gang lifestyle
- police and other agencies involved
- dramatic decline in homicide rates while the program was in effect
Explain Rational Choice Theory
Developed by researchers at Britain’s Home Office
This theory is based on offenders’ choices
- their decision making in specific situations
- their perceptions of the risks and rewards of crime
- how they select their target and how they proceed (found that they select their targets based on perceptions of risks and rewards)
*main thesis is that crime is the result of deliberate choices made my offenders based on their calculation of the risks and rewards
Doesn’t focus on offender background but on the situational dynamic involved in the decision of whether to commit a crime
*research shows that the short-term costs and benefits are more important than long-term considerations
Explain Environmental Criminology
Patricia and Paul Brantingham extended rational choice theory to develop environmental criminology
- Found that criminals are more likely to commit offences along the paths they travel in the course of their daily activities
- Even if these individuals are not actively seeking criminal opportunities, they may take advantage of vulnerabilities they encounter in the daily course of their lives
Crime patterns analyzed in terms of nodes, paths, and edges:
nodes = places frequented by the criminal
paths = routes between nodes, which are vulnerable to crime
edges = boundaries between different types of land use, where crime may be high because of weaker social control
What is the lifestyle/exposure theory
- developed from research on patterns of crime and victimization
- some ppl put themselves in social settings with a high risk of victimization (not everyone has the same lifestyle and some lifestyles expose ppl to more risks than others)
- ex. spending a lot of evenings in public places or being a sex worker on the streets
- some ppl will be more likely to be repeatedly victimized
Describe the routine activities approach
Explain the 3 things it emphasizes
This is an extension of the lifestyle/exposure theory - assumes that crimes are the expected outcomes of routine activities and changing social patterns
- A motivated offender
- A suitable target: an increase in the number, value, or accessibility of suitable targets can result in increases in crime
–> ex. an unlit home with shrubs blocking the front view and no alarm system will be a more suitable target than a well-protected home *** risk factors are the major consideration in target suitability - Effective guardianship: includes putting locks on bikes, putting goods in the trunk, have police in high-crime area
How has the routine activities perspective been modified to incorporate two additional variables?
Occurrence or prevention of a crime also depends on the presence of…
Intimate handlers: someone who has intimate knowledge of the potential offender to control him or her (impact of social bonds and positive peer influence)
Crime facilitators: physical facilitators (guns, knives, etc.). , social facilitators (negative peer influences), or chemical facilitators (drugs, liquor)
(or things like opportunity facilitators like self-checkout for groceries)
Explain a critique of rational choice theory about the Diverse Attractions of Crime
- critics says that the theory may account for financially motivated crimes but doesn’t account for expressive crimes involving strong emotions
- defenders argue that opportunities cause crime and they realize that the attractions of crime are diverse and that motivations for criminal behaviour are complex
What has been the most successful policy implication for preventing crime?
Situational crime prevention
Describe Situational Crime Prevention - what are the ways that opportunities for crime can be reduced?
Crime prevention methods premised on the belief that most crime is opportunistic rather than the outcome of those driven to commit a crime no matter what the circumstances. This form of prevention attempts to reduce the opportunities for crime rather than just relying on the police after the crime has occurred
**from class slides:
- reduce target suitability - some target have become more suitable (ex. computers easier to steal), while some have become harder (ex. kill switches in phones reducing robberies)
- effective guardianship - reduce opportunity for crime - video surveillance
Reduce opportunities for crime:
1. increase the EFFORT required to commit a crime by target hardening or by controlling access to targets
2. Increase the RISKS by increasing levels of formal or informal surveillance or guardianship
3. reduce the REWARDS by identifying property to facilitate recovery, by removing targets, or by denying the benefits of crime
4. reduce PROVOCATIONS by controlling for peer pressure or by reducing frustration or conflict
5. remove EXCUSES by setting clear rules and limits
Alarm systems and cameras are a form of what kind of crime prevention?
Situational crime prevention
Explain Reducing Motivated Offenders (crime prevention through social development)
Crime can be prevented through social development:
- can reduce motivated offenders by altering the high-risk conditions that breed criminal behaviour
- some approaches:
–> improve parenting skills of high-risk parents
–> provide job training and employment for young ppl who are cut off from the labour market
- social development strategies often target young ppl who are the most amenable to intervention and who make up the next generation of offenders
Explain the Perry Preschool project in Michigan
Example of reducing motivated offenders through social development
- poor black children aged 3-4 attended preschool for 30 weeks
- at age 40, they showed lower arrest rates and better social results all around, compared to a control group
- social savings were estimated at $17 for every dollar spent on the program
Explain the Need for Comprehensive Crime Prevention Initiatives
Critics of situational crime prevention fear a “fortress society” or a “big brother” state where our actions are always subject to scrutiny through technology like surveillance
* the most sensible strategy is a comprehensive one that involves situational and developmental approaches
Should include:
- involvement of diff. levels of government and other agencies
- target communities where it is most needed
- use a broad range of prevention approaches tailored to the specific needs of communities
- draw upon programs that have been shown to be effective in other places
What was the Winnipeg auto theft suppression strategy?
- effective guardianship: youth were contacted every day by youth probation; those who violated their conditions of release were immediately apprehended
- target suitability: electronic vehicle immobilizers were provided for the 100,000 most at-risk vehicles
- motivated offenders: social causes of auto theft were addressed by working with young ppl and their families
*this program was effective in reducing auto theft
What is the most effective way to reduce crime?
Implement comprehensive crime prevention programs that focus on social developmental and situational measures
What is the link between rational choice theory and routine activities theory
Rational choice theory is based on classical theory (as is the notion of deterrence) and routine activities theory is a subset of rational choice theory
