Chapter 2

Question 1

Developmental Pathway

- Influencing factors (3)

Answer 1

• are the characerisitcs of which often can be identified a very early age; each person follows diff path.
• Developmental perspective views life course as followig pathway filled with risk factors (experiences common in backgorund of offenders such as school failure, abuse of alchol, childhood abuse)
  1. Biological 2. Psychological 3. Enviromental

Question 2

Protective factors

Answer 2

characteristics, experiences found in nutruting enviro can shield children from serious antisocial behavior (warm caring parents in high edu)

Question 3

Risk factors

1. -4
2. -5
3. -4
   - Another risk factor

Answer 3

1. Social risk factors- poverty, antisocial peers, peer rejection, school experiences
2. Parental and family risk factors- faulty parenting styles (permissive lack of attachment, and minimal monitoring), fam psychopahtology, single parents, sibling influences, and childabuse
3. Psychological factors- inadequate cognitive and language ability, Low psychometric intelligence, inadequate self-regulation skills, poor interpersonal and social skills. More bio based. (ODD,CD)
   - sub abuse

Question 4

Social Risk Factors: Poverty

• def
• rate
• Blair & Raver effect of poverty
• offending
• victims
• relationship btwn pov and violence
• poverty impact

Answer 4

• Refers to stituation in which basic resources to maintain avg standard living within specific region are lacking
• In US, 1 in 5 children reach offical poverty (housholds with incomes below fed pvoerty line)
• Blair and Raver: psychosocial context of poverty adversly affect multiples aspects of developemnt; they are also cumulative in that effects at one stage hinder development at later stages
• Poverty has strong connection to violent offending; connection to nonviolent offending not quite as strong
• Children living under dire economic conditions are more likley to be victims than offenders; Adults in substandard housing more likley to be victims of crime
• Exact relationship not well understood bc poverty is intertwined with large number of influences that are called poverty co-factors
  (Poverty is accomp by discimination, racism, family dispruption, unsafe conitions, joblessness, and isolation)
• Poverty impacts parent’s behavior toward children. Stress caused by poverty diminshes parents capactiy for supportive/consistent parenting leading to highly aggressive methods of child rearing. Use of coercive methods used bc they are directs, immediate, and easy to adminster compared with senstivity, interpersonal skills and patience.

Question 5

Delinquency and economic status-2

Answer 5

1. low SES and delinquency does not mean that poverty causes chronic offending. The great majority of poor children and adults are law-abiding, and children and adults from high SES do engage in crime.
2. Children from low SES class are targeted by law enforcement practices more thatn children of middle and upper; more likley to be taken into custody which causes them to appear in statistics more and exposes them to other offenders promoting delinquent behavior. Children of high SES more likley to be provided with legal assistance

Question 6

Social Risk Factor: Peer Rejection and Association with Antisocial Peers

• influence
• early rejection
• first grade
• secondgrade %
• Cascade
• parent relations
• drugs

Answer 6

• During adolescnece there is increase in suspectibility to peer influence and decline in susceptibility to parental influcence
• Early rejcetion by peers is one of strongest predictors of antisoical behavior
• Rejection in first grade peers linked to development of antisocial behavior by fourth grade
• Children rejected for at least two or three years by second grade had 50% chance of displaying antisocial behavior in adolsecne
• Cascade effect where conduct disorders lead to peer rejection and then to depressive symptoms
• Quality of parent child and marital relations also signiicant in whether child is rejected by peers
• Involvement with antisocial peers leads to drug use

Question 7

Cowan’s research

Answer 7

neg qualities in marital and p-c relations are risk facotrs for low social skills, aggressive behavior, and rejection in school

Question 8

Why are children rejected by peers?

Answer 8

• Their own aggressive behavior is a prominent reason
• Children tend to reject peers who freq use forms of physical and verbal aggression as dealing with others
• Many believed that aggressive children more likely than non aggressive to be rejected by peers however relationship not so straightforward: Peers may also reject those who are shy and not all aggressive children are rejected; some liked
• However, aggression combo with rejection does lead to antisocial behavior

Question 9

Which children prone to rejection?

- Coe (3)

Answer 9

Coe points to 3 diffs in rejected boy:

1. Rejected aggressive boys are more impulsive and have attending problems so they are more disruptive
2. Also aroused to anger and have trouble calming down
3. Have fewer social and interpersonal skills for making positive relationships
   - In summary peer rejected children not always just aggressive but arguementative, inattentive, disruptive, have poor social skils

Question 10

Gender diffs in peer rejection

• Prinstein and La Greca study
• Higgins & Piquero
• girl aggression

Answer 10

• found antisocial behavior in girls as in boys predicted by involvement in aggressive behaviors
• Higgins, Piquero: found peer rejection rleated to delinquency in boys but not in girls
• Some research suggests that relationally aggressive girls more likley to be peer rejected. (Relational aggression is hurting others with words or nonphysical methods.

Question 11

Gang or deviant group influences on rejected youth

- 3 different perspectives

Answer 11

Three diff major perspectives on infuence of peer groups on antisocial behavior:

1. Argues children become delinquenct as direct result of assoc with deviant peer groups. Almost any child susceptible
2. Antisocial, peer rejected youth seek out grouter contact with similar peer rejected peers
3. Between the two perspectives; states peer rejected antisocial children are drawn to deviant groups with members sim to themselves and this encourages already existing antisocial tendencies (current research favors this perspective)

Question 12

Social Risk Factor: Preschool experiences

• child care in US
• Multiple child care
• income
• aggressive toddlers/predictor of later aggression

Answer 12

• Out of home child care in US is on avg mediocre; Quality provided by day care centers is highly variable due to low wages
• Multiple child care arrangements (juggling child care duties amond day care centers, relatives, babysitters) can have neg impact on childrens social adjustment. Can decrease prosocial behavior
• Income is not the determing factor in providing enrichment experiences; Parents in stressful work can affect c-p relations. In this sense high quality preschool benefits all children regardless of of familys economic circumstances
• Day care teachers worry about aggression in toddlers more than any other behavior problem. Aggressive behavior at three years of age predict aggressive behavior in later life

Question 13

After-school care

• after school care
• term
• antisocial children

Answer 13

• Quality of after school care assoc with development of antisocial behavior
• In 1990s the term latch-key children applied to children who retruend from schol to an empty house and remained on own until parents finished own workday
• Antisocial children seek out niches that involve assoc with antisocial peers and environments with minimal adult supervison

Question 14

School failure

• school failure?
• kinder delay
• IQ (rate)
• ability assoc with criminal activity

Answer 14

• Early school failure also linked to antisocial development; Retention in elementary school has long term bad affects on development
• However, delaying entry into kinderg doesn’t have same affects (it’s the staying back label that promtpts children to be seen negativley and then rejected)
• School failure more assoc with delinquincy rather than low IQ (odds of delinquent behavior in 8 yr old boys failing school were double)
• Regardless of race/ethnic background, reading appears to play prominent role in school failure and is assoc with criminial acrivity in boys

Question 15

Social Risk Factor: Parental and Family factors

• single parent households (rate)
• delinquents
• research today
• single parent home influence

Answer 15

• Over 12 mil families in american have single parent
• Delinquents more likley to come from homes where parents are divorced
• Today, research more likley to look at familys SES and degree of emotional support
• If single parent home is risk factor it is also influenced by other variables. Rather than looking at structure of family, must focus on process instead. Houshold should include at least one competent caring adult

Question 16

Parenting practices and styles

• they are?
• parental practices? (ex)?
• parental styles?
• ex of good parenting style

Answer 16

• Pertain to ways in which parents interact with children
• Parental practices are strategies employed by parents to achieve social, academic or athletic goals; Parental behavioral patterns used to influence some aspect of child’s behavior (giving child allowance to teach budgeting)
• Parental styles are p-c interactions characterized by parental attitudes toward the child and the emotional climate of the p-c relationship (gestures, tone of voice,)
• A responsive p-c interaction is warm, playful, accepting, engaging

Question 17

Four types of parental styles

• developed by?
• strongest risk factor for crime
• many parents?

Answer 17

• Diana Baumrind
  1. Authoritarian- try to shape, control, and evaluate behavior in accordance with some standard. Have numerous rules that are not questionaed. Discourage verbal exchanges that imply equality. Expect child to be obedient, deviations may result in physical punishment
  2. Permissive- display tolerant, nonpunitive, accepting attitudes toward children including expressions of aggression and sexual impulses. Avoid asserting authority or imposing social controls or restrictions on behavior. Parent is rousource person and can be consulted if needed. Allow children to set their own time schedule with little monitoring.
  3. Authoritave- tries to direct children’s behavior in a rational and reasonable manner. Freq decsions making exchanges and open communication; Apply firm rules but encourage independence.
  4. Neglecting- detachment and little involvment, neither demanding nor responsive; do not monitor but may actively reject responsiblities. In extreme form may qualify as neglect (one of strongest risk factors for crime)

-Many parents vacillate between permissivness and authoritavness and some vary due to child’s age

Question 18

Snyder and Patterson: two parental styles that contribute to delinquency

• Similar to?
• Parenting styles connected to antisocial behavior development?

Answer 18

• sim to authoritarian and permissive styles:
  1. Enmeshed style- see an unusually large number of minor behaviors as problematic and use ineffective authoroitarian strategies to deal with them. Use inconsistent verbal threats and nonphysical punishment. The aggressive behavior causes all interactions to become adversive in the family.
  2. Lax style- employs strategies that are the opposite of Enmeshed; not sure what is problematic behavior so they allow much to slip by. Fail to recognize deviant behavior. May pretend they are unware
• Parenting stles assoc with enmeshed and authoritarian are closely connected to development of aggression and antisocial behavior

Question 19

Authoritative styles

- mothers and girls

Answer 19

• have opposite effect of enmeshed and authoritarian
• some research shows that antisocial behavior among girls may be buffered by prescense of warm, responsive (authoritive) mother although not same for boys.

Question 20

• Worst style

- Permissive and lax styles

Answer 20

• Of all parenting styles, neglecting style most assoc with delinquent behavior; however other adult role models can stop it.
• Permissive, and lax styles also can lead to delinquency; these styles lead child to have low levels of self-reliance and great difficultuy controlling impulses.

Question 21

Parental Monitoring

• is?
• influenced by?
• when is it most imp?
• effective monitoring
• poor parental monitoring (%)

Answer 21

• is parent’s awareness of their child’s peer associates, activities, and whereabouts.
• Amount of monitoring influened by divorce, financial distress, loss of job, parental psych disorders, sub abuse, death
• Montioring epecially imp form about age 9 to mid adolescnece
• Effective monitoring doesn’t require presecene of parent; can be after school program. Cannot underestimate the importance of neighborhood monitoring; some research shows lowrates of crime in communities where adults monitior actions of other children
• Some studies indicated poor parental monitoring increase risk of delinquency 2 ½ times

Question 22

Influence of Siblings

• delinquent children
• risk of delinquency higher when?

Answer 22

• Children with high rates of delinquency more likely to have siblings with delinquency; older siblings who engage in these bheaviors reinforce antisoical behavior in younger sibs when there is a warm relation between them. If not close, then opposite occures
• Risk of delinquency higher when bad sib is closer in age

Question 23

Parental psychopathology

- depression & Alcoholism

Answer 23

• Children who have parents whom are depressed (especially mothers) at increased risk for range of behavioral problems such as antisocial, emotional dysfunction and cog problems
• Mothers singled out bc they are dom caretakers
• Parental alchoholism elevates risk; parental alcholhilsm may be more important than maternal alchoholism in son’s antisocial behavior

Question 24

Attachment styles

• attachment theory (2)
• Ward: sex offenders
• Adsead: violent offenders

Answer 24

-John Bowlby stated early relationship between infant and caregiver determines quality of social relationship later in life. Created 2 attachment styles:
1. Secure attachment is when infants are placed in strange enviro and play comfortably in mother’s prescence and demonstrate curoisity about new enviro. When mother leaves, child becomes distressed but happy when she returns. Use their mother as secure base from which to explore
2. Insecure attachment: anxious/ambivalent and avoidant
Anxious/ambivalent- becomes distressed by sparation and in new enviros and cling to mother. When mother returns they become hostile toward her
Avoidant- little distress whether mother is present or not. Rarley cry upon sep or reunion
- Mary Ainsworth observed that parents who are sensitive, affectionatie, responsive have securely attached children
- Those with abvoidant often have parents who are aloof, distant, avoid intimacy
- Infants with ambivalent parents will be overbearing and inconsistent with intimacy. As adults they will be obsessive and preoccupoed with relationships
- Ward hypothesized that many sex offenders had parents who are inconsistent and poor at identifying child’s needs (avoidant attachment style)
- Adshead said many violent offenders have insecure attachemnt: Fear of loss may generate rage in offender
- She also found majority of offenders had simissing attachment style showing diminshed capactiy for emptahy toward victims

Question 25

Psych Risk Factors: Lack of empathy - 2 kinds - antisocial ppl - Low A - gender diffs - empathy in elementary school - Stouthamer (animal cruelty) - cruel to animals %

Answer 25

- Empahty exists along 2 dimensions: 1. Affective empathy is an emotional response characterized by feelings of concern for another and desire to alleviate their distress (ability to experience) 2. Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand a person from their fram of ref (ability to understand) - Deficiencies in empathy have long been considered charactersitics of antisocial ppl - Low affective empathy is a cental part of psychopahty which is combo of psych and behavior factors related to tendency to engage in antisocial/violent behavior. However, psychopaths are able to understand emotions of others (cognitive empathy) but can’t experience it - Girls show empathy earlier than boys - Relationship of empathy and antisocial behavior is discernible in elementary and stronger with age ( little in 1st grade even less in 8th) - Stouthamer-Loeber found males 13-25 that where cruel to animals was one of strongest predictors of serious violent crime - Youth who were cruel to animasl are 3 times more likely to committ serious interpersonal violence

Question 26

Psych Risk Factors: cognitive and language deficits - impairments - antisocial and conduct disorders - Language impairments are? - Seavhers and Larsson: predictor - Brownie - Brownie's speculation - language problems cause?

Answer 26

- Cog and lang impairments increase risk of behavior, at least in boys - High percentage diagnosed with antisocial and conduct disorders demonstrate lang impairments - Language impairments are probs expressing or understanding lang - Seavhers tattin and Klackenberg-Larsson found poor lang in sencond year of life was predictor of adult criminal behavior - Brownie found boys with lang impariment at five more likley to have delinquent behavior at age 19 - Brownie speculated that assoc due to negative impact that language impairments have on child’s schooling performance. Also rejected by peers and viewed neg by teachers - Lang probs also cause frustration in abilty to express point of view which is needed for conflict resoloution. This can lead to aggressive behavior

Question 27

Psych Risk Factor: Intelligence and Delinquency - Hirschi and Hindelang - IQ vs. intelligence - Psychometric approach - PI - Good IQ depends on?

Answer 27

-hypothesized that an indirect causal relation exists between IQ and delinquency. Low IQ leads to poor performance and neg attitudes which leads to delinquency. Low IQ dosnt lead directly to it. Inverse relationship between IQ and Delinq continues to be seen in research -IQ is not identical to intelligence; it is an abbrev of intelligence quotient derived from intelligence test. Term IQ derived out of psychometric approach. Intelligence is a broad all encompassing ability that defies any straigtforward defintion. Includes abiltily ranging form musical to math talent. -The perspective that human characteristics, attributes, and traits can be measured and quantified. -Psychometric intelligence is a more contemporary designation of intelligence as measured by intelligence or IQ tests. However, term not used in comparison with “IQ.” -Good performance on IQ tests depends on language and verbal skills

Question 28

IQ and ethnicity - Blacks - IQ gap - Asians, Whites, Indians, Latinos - Diffs in intelligence due to - relationship between IQ and crime

Answer 28

- IQ scores vary among racial and ethnic groups - Blacks score lower than whites - IQ gap is decreasing since 1980 - Asians and whites score about the same, Indians lower on verbal skills but may be due to middle ear infections - Latinos score between blacks and whites - No evidence to show that racial and ethnic diffs in intelligence due to bio factors; although some genetics play role in indvid diffs not in group - Relationship between low IQ and delinquency appears to be independent of SES, race and detention by police

Question 29

IQ in adult offenders (%)

Answer 29

At least 4% of prison pop qualify as intellectually disabled; jails hold even higher %

Question 30

ADHD - is? - common belief - % of children, gender diffs, adults - antisocial behavior and ADHD - Cause of ADHD - core problem

Answer 30

•Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: includes various behaviors: inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity - ADHD is leading psych diagnosis for American children - Although common belief is that you eventually outgrow it, evidence shows symtomatic features persist into adulthood. - Many ADHD children grow up to lead succesful lives and dont not become deliquent - Affects 7.8 % school age children in US - More in boys, 5:1 ratio - Adult pop is 5% - Antisocial and aggressive behavior stemming from ADHD appears to impulsive and a reaction to frustration or threat - Some suggest ADHD is caused by bio predisoposition others say its caused by enviro factors that damage nervous system - The core problem centers around exectuvie functions or self-reg skills. Self-regulation is ability to contrl behavior, “not doing” (Attention, inhibition, and organzing are ways of “doing” or working on cognitive processes)

Question 31

ADHD and criminal behavior - % w/ ADHD children - most common problems assoc with ADHD - Rates in correctional facilities vs. gen pop, incarcerate males/females

Answer 31

- about ¼ of children with ADHD engage in antisocial behavior during childhood and criminal behavior during adulthood. - Most common problem assoc with ADHD is delinquency and sub abuse - Rates for ADHD are 3-10 times higher in secure correctional factilities than in general pop. ADHD rate are between 11-45% for incarcerted males and 10-18.5% for females compared to 5% in gen pop

Question 32

Conduct Disorder - progression assoc w/ - CD is? Central feature? - examples - CD in school - aggressive CD's - 2 types - research assoc with the two - % in US, gender, age

Answer 32

- ADHD freq occurs with this disorder - The progression from ADHD to early onset conduct disorder is often asso with ineffective and coercive parenting - CD is a cluster of behaviors characterized by persistent misbehavior. Central feature according to DSM is repetitive and persistent patter of behavior that violates rights of others - EX: stealing, fire setting, running away, skipping school, fighting. - Children with CD often have problems in school completing assignments therfore labeled with learning disability - Aggressive CD children are high risk to be rejected by peers and miss opportunities to develop effective interpersonal and social skills 1. Child onset type- occurs when pattern begins prior to age 10; prognosis not good 2. Adult onset type- abscense of any pattern before 10 - Research shows that maladjustment and family influences are assoc with childhood onoset conduct disorders where ethnic minority status and expo to deviant peers more assoc with adult onset. - Overall 2-8% of children and adolescents in US show CD - Boys outnumber girls, 4:1 before adolescense and 2:1 during adolescence, Can be seen at age 3

Question 33

Oppositional Defiant Disorder - criteria - symptoms - criminal behavior

Answer 33

- often negative, hostile, defiant, lasting for at least 6 mos. Display perspstent pattern of angry outbursts, arguemtns, resentment. DSM assumes ODD is always present in youth who are diagnosed with CD - However, CD often occurs without ODD. ODD is a challenging conditiou during childhood buta diagnosis that is not highly assoc with lasting conduct problems (may be normal teenage behavior to some) - Symptoms of ODD generally decline as child gets older - Some research shows early ODD predicts CD but unkown if ODD leads to criminal behavior

Question 34

Psychopathy -3 | -treatment

Answer 34

1. antisocial behavior 2. difficulty with inhibition 3. lack of empathy - hardly respond to treatment (biological)