Chapter 8 - Communication and Decision Making

Question 1

Communication

Answer 1

• the use of symbols to transfer the meaning
• increasingly carried out via social media, blogs, wikis, texting, smart phones, and e-mail of information
• communication among people does not depend on technology but rather on forces in people and their surroundings. It is a process that occurs within people

Question 2

Nonverbal Communication

Answer 2

• sometimes called the “silent language”
• nonword human responses (such as gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted

Question 3

Body Language

Answer 3

• Body movements convey meanings and messages.
• This form of communication includes facial expressions and what people do with their eyes, feet, hands, and posture
• People concentrate on hiding their tension from the waist up. Their real state is revealed in their legs and feet

Question 4

Suggestions to improve nonverbal communication

Answer 4

1. Look at what is happening in the situation. When nonverbal behavior is an emotional response, it reflects what is going on at the moment and can be used to better understand the person’s nonverbal behavior.
2. Consider the discrepancies between the nonverbal behavior and the verbal statements. If there is a mismatch, then this should be a signal for closer examination of what is going on. Sometimes the nonverbal signals are more accurate than the verbal ones.
3. Watch for subtleties in the nonverbal behavior. For example, the difference between a real smile and a fake one can usually be detected.

Question 5

Interpersonal Communication

Answer 5

• the major emphasis is on transferring information from one person to another
• Human communication has always been central to organizational action. Today, the introduction of various sophisticated electronic communication technologies and the demand for faster and better forms of interaction are visibly influencing the nature of [interpersonal] communication

Question 6

“The Director” Communication Style

Answer 6

• short attention span
• processes information very quickly
• interested only in the bottom line
• present with a bulleted list
• forget all of the background information

Question 7

“The Free Spirit” Communication Style

Answer 7

• creative, big-picture person
• likes to consider alternative approaches to doing things
• not very good on followthrough
• likes to consider alternatives before making a decision
• be patient
• be prepared for changes in direction

Question 8

“The Humanist” Communication Style

Answer 8

• likes everyone to be happy
• concerned with feelings
• seeks consensus before action is taken
• patience and tact are needed to communicate with this person

Question 9

“The Historian” Communication Style

Answer 9

• likes the whole picture
• thrives on details
• likes a thorough analysis and background information
• does not jump from subject to subject
• focused on topic until exhaustively review is complete

Question 10

Feedback

Answer 10

• feedback makes communication a two-way process

- is a big problem with much of e-mail that turns out to be only one-way

Question 11

Feedback - Intention

Answer 11

• is directed toward improving job performance
• make employee a more valuable asset
• Should not compromise feeling of self-worth
• is not personal

Question 12

Feedback - Specificity

Answer 12

• Provide specific information to correct a situation

- Should not be general or vague

Question 13

Feedback - Description

Answer 13

• characterized as descriptive rather than evaluative

- It tells the employee what he or she has done in objective terms, rather than presenting a value judgment

Question 14

Feedback - Usefulness

Answer 14

• is information that an employee can use to improve performance

Question 15

Feedback - Timeliness

Answer 15

• As a rule, the more immediate the feedback, the better.

Question 16

Feedback - Readiness

Answer 16

• In order for feedback to be effective, employees must be ready to receive it

Question 17

Feedback - Clarity

Answer 17

• ask the recipient to restate the major points of the discussion

Question 18

Feedback - Validity

Answer 18

• In order for feedback to be effective, it must be reliable and valid

Question 19

Interpersonal vs. Interactive Communication

Answer 19

• interpersonal communication is at the micro, individual level
• interactive communication is at the macro, organizational level

Question 20

Horizontal Communication

Answer 20

• is the transmission of information between people, divisions, departments or units within the same level of organizational hierarchy.
• the real key to horizontal communication is still found in people and behaviors

Question 21

Vertical Communication

Answer 21

• is the transmission of information between different levels of the organizational hierarchy
• In most cases the vertical communication process still overshadows the horizontal

Question 22

Interactive Communication

Answer 22

• is an exchange of ideas where both participants, whether human, machine or art form, are active and can have an effect on one another. It is a dynamic, two-way flow of information
• While there was far more communication downward (between managers and their employees) than upward (between managers and top managers above them in the organization), there were no specific differences determined by the initiation of interaction

Question 23

Four Purposes of Interactive Communication

Answer 23

1. Task coordination
2. Problem-solving
3. Information sharing
4. Conflict resolution

Question 24

The Role of the Informal Organization

Answer 24

• The informal system of communication can be used to spread false rumors and destructive information, or it can effectively supplement the formal channels of communication.
  (1) the hallway takes away some of the sense of hierarchy, making the participants seem more equal and
  (2) the hallway invites multiple perspectives— anyone who wanders by can join in, adding their ideas to the mix
• the informal system has negative or positive functions for the organization depends largely on the goals of the person doing the communicating
• personal goals may or may not be compatible with organizational goals
• critics of the grapevine because its speed makes control of false rumors and information
• Important relevant information that requires quick responsive action by lower-level personnel may be more effectively handled by the informal system than by the formal system

Question 25

Decision Making

Answer 25

- choosing between alternatives - when a manager plans, organizes and controls, he or she is making decisions - "The processes of decision … are largely techniques for narrowing choice." by Chester Barnard

Question 26

Three Phases of the Decision Making Process | by Herbert A. Simon

Answer 26

1. Intelligence activity - searching the environment for conditions calling for decision making 2. Design activity - inventing, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action 3. Choice activity - selecting a particular course of action from among those available

Question 27

``` Three Phases of the Decision Making Process by Mintzberg (more organizationally based) ```

Answer 27

1. The identification phase, during which recognition of a problem or opportunity arises and a diagnosis is made. It was found that severe, immediate problems did not receive a very systematic, extensive diagnosis but that mild problems did. 2. The development phase, during which there may be a search for existing standard procedures or solutions already in place or the design of a new, tailor-made solution. It was found that the design process was a groping, trial-and-error process in which the decision makers had only a vague idea of the ideal solution. 3. The selection phase, during which the choice of a solution is made. There are three ways of making this selection: by the judgment of the decision maker, on the basis of experience or intuition rather than logical analysis; by analysis of the alternatives on a logical, systematic basis; and by bargaining when the selection involves a group of decision makers and all the political maneuvering that this entails. Once the decision is formally accepted, an authorization is made

Question 28

Rationality

Answer 28

- If appropriate means are chosen to reach desired ends, the decision is said to be rational - very difficult to separate means from ends

Question 29

Means-Ends Chain | or Hierarchy

Answer 29

- an apparent end may be only a means for some future end - the means-end hierarchy is seldom an integrated, completely connected chain. Often the connection between organization activities and ultimate objectives is obscure, or these ultimate objectives are incompletely formulated, or there are internal conflicts and contradictions among the ultimate objectives, or among the means selected to attain them.

Question 30

Escalation of Commitment

Answer 30

- is a human behavior pattern in which an individual or group facing increasingly negative outcomes from a decision, action, or investment nevertheless continues the behavior instead of altering course. - Double down on a bad choice

Question 31

Four reasons for Escalation of Commitment

Answer 31

1. Project characteristics - primary reason: project characteristics such as delayed return on investment or obvious temporary problems 2. Psychological determinants - Once the decision goes bad, the manager may have information processing errors (use biased factors or take more risks than are justified). Also, because the decision maker is now ego-involved, negative information is ignored and defensive shields are set up. 3. Social forces - save face or peer pressure 4. Organizational determinants - breakdown in communication, dysfunctional politics, and resistance to change

Question 32

Decision-Making Styles

Answer 32

1. Charismatics - enthusiastic, captivating, talkative, dominant 2. Thinkers - cerebral, intelligent, logical, academic 3. Skeptics - demanding, disruptive, disagreeable, rebellious 4. Followers - responsible, cautious, brand-driven, bargain-conscious 5. Controllers - logical, unemotional, sensible, detail oriented, accurate, analytical

Question 33

Value Orientation Dimension

Answer 33

focuses on the decision maker’s concern for task and technical matters as opposed to people and social concerns

Question 34

Tolerance for Ambiguity

Answer 34

measures how much the decision the maker needs structure and control (a desire for low ambiguity) as opposed to being able to thrive in uncertain situations (a desire for high ambiguity).

Question 35

Four Styles of Decision Making

Answer 35

1. Directive Style 2. Analytical Style 3. Conceptual Style 4. Behavioral Style

Question 36

Directive Style

Answer 36

- Decision-makers with a directive style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and the technical concerns - tend to be efficient, logical, pragmatic, and systematic in their approach to problem-solving - focus on facts and get things done quickly - action-oriented, tend to have a very short-run focus, like to exercise power, want to be in control, and, in general, display an autocratic leadership style

Question 37

Analytical Style

Answer 37

- high tolerance for ambiguity and a strong task and technical orientation - like to analyze situations (over-analyze) - take a long time to make decisions - respond well to new or uncertain situations - tend to have an autocratic leadership style

Question 38

Conceptual Style

Answer 38

- high tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns - take a broad perspective in solving problems and like to consider many options - discuss with many people to gather information then rely on intuition to make a decision - willing to take risks; good at creative solutions - can foster an idealistic and indecisive approach

Question 39

Behavioral Style

Answer 39

- low tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns - tend to work well with others and like situations in which opinions are openly exchanged - receptive to suggestions, are supportive and warm, and prefer verbal to written information - tend to avoid conflict; concerned with keeping everyone happy - have a difficult time saying no to people - do not like making tough decisions especially if someone is unhappy.

Question 40

Creativity is a function of these major components:

Answer 40

- expertise: Knowledge technical, procedural, and intellectual - creative-thinking skills: flexibility and imagination in problem-solving - motivation: the inner passion to solve the problem at hand

Question 41

Tacit Knowledge

Answer 41

This type of knowledge is not readily explainable, is acquired through observation and experience, and seems to be in the unconscious

Question 42

Dimensions of the Creative Process

Answer 42

- Divergent thinking: a person’s ability to generate novel, but still appropriate, responses to questions and problems. - Cognitive complexity: refers to a person’s use of and preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Tend to have such cognitive complexity and display a wide range of interests, are independent, and are interested in philosophical or abstract problems

Question 43

Group Decision Making

Answer 43

1. The majority-wins scheme: Majority wins 2. The truth-wins scheme: recognition that one approach is objectively correct 3. The two-thirds majority scheme: juries 4. The first-shift rule: the group tends to adopt the decision that reflects the first shift in opinion expressed by any group member