1
Q
Function of the Circulatory System
A
- One loop delivers blood to the body (oxygenated)
- The other delivers blood to the lungs (deoxygenated)
2
Q
Function of blood carried by the circulatory system
A
- transports oxygen to the body cells
- transports nutrients from the digestive system to body cells
- transports hormones to body cells
- transports waste from the body cells to excretory organs
- distributes body heat
- maintains constant pH in tissue fluids
- prevents infections
3
Q
Systemic System
A
- carries blood throughout the body(except the heart and lungs)
- brings nutrients and oxygen to the body tissues
- removes carbon dioxide and other wastes
4
Q
Pulmonary System
A
- carries blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs where carbon dioxide is eliminated and oxygen is picked up
- blood returns to the left side of the heart where it is distributed via the systemic system
5
Q
Coronary System
A
- provides blood to the heart
- the heart receives its own supply of blood from the coronary arteries
- two major coronary arteries branch off from the aorta
- These arteries and their branches supply all parts of the heart muscle with blood
6
Q
Layers of the Heart
A
There are three layers of the heart. They are called; pericardium, Myocardium and the Endocardium
7
Q
Pericardium
A
a thin closed sac surrounding the heart and the bases of the vessels that enter and leave the heart. It is filled with a clear slippery fluid that reduces friction caused by heart contractions
8
Q
Myocardium
A
The middle layer, it is the thickest part of the wall and is composed mostly of cardiac muscle cells
9
Q
Endocardium
A
inner layer that forms the lining of the heart chambers
10
Q
How many chambers are in the human hearts
A
there are 4 chambers. The top half is the atria, the bottom half if the ventricles.
11
Q
The Atria
A
it acts as holding chambers for blood entering the heart from the systemic of pulmonary circulatory systems
12
Q
The Ventricles
A
they are stronger and are more muscular, they pump blood to the tissues in the body
13
Q
Human heart has 4 valves
A
valves ensure blood moves in one direction.
As the heart muscle contracts and relaxes, the valves open and shut
14
Q
Atrioventricular Valves (A-V Valves)
A
they are the valves between the atria and the ventricles on the left and right side of the heart consisting of two or three flaps of tissue that are anchored to the inner walls of the ventricles by the chordae tendineae
15
Q
Tricuspid Valve
A
the A-V valve on the right side of the heart, between the right ventricle and atrium ( 3 flaps of tissue)
16
Q
Bicuspid Valve
A
the A-V valve on the left side of the heart (2 flaps of tissue)
17
Q
Semilunar Valves
A
found in the areas in which the blood vessels attach to the ventricles at the pulmonary artery and aorta.
consists of three flaps of tissue resembling half moons
18
Q
How does blood return from our heart to our feet
A
- one way valves
- skeletal muscles squeeze blood upward
19
Q
Arteries
A
- Carry blood AWAY from the heart to body tissues
-thick muscular walls with three distinct layers of tissue
- stretch to accommodate blood rushing in
- blood flows due to elasticity of the artery walls
- arteries of various sizes branch around the entire body
- the largest artery is the aorta found in the heart
- smaller sized arteries are called arterioles whose diameter is regulated by nerves
- arterioles branch into capillaries
20
Q
Veins
A
- carry blood back to the heart
- capillaries merge and form venules, which then merge into veins
- walls are thinner and weaker than the walls of arteries
- the pressure of blood is less than it is in the arteries so veins need valves to move the blood back to the heart
- contractions of the skeletal muscles surrounding the veins also aid in the pushing of blood back to the heart
- veins start off small and converge with other veins, forming larger and larger vessels
- the largest veins are the superior and inferior vena cava found in the heart
21
Q
Capillaries
A
- forms and extensive gas exchange system
- have thin walls through which nutrients and wastes can pass
- provide a site of exchange between the blood and the tissue fluid surrounding the cells of the body
- permeable to many substances: O2, CO2, water soluble ions, vitamins and some proteins
- oxygen diffuses from the blood through the capillary walls to the surrounding tissue, and carbon dioxide and other wastes move in the opposite direction
- work through the processes of endocytosis, exocytosis, osmosis and diffusion
- one cell layer thick – easy to destroy (high blood pressure can burst a capillary, even a bruise is evidence of ruptured capillaries)
22
Q
Vasoconstriction
A
is the narrowing of blood vessels due to the contraction of smooth muscle fibres in the arterioles.
Ex. when we turn white in fright, skin blood vessels constrict so that more blood is supplied to the muscles
23
Q
Vasodilation
A
is the widening of blood vessels resulting in more blood entering the tissue area, caused by a relaxation of the muscle fibres in the blood vessels
Ex. blushing is a vasodilation of skin blood vessels
24
Q
The pathway of blood
A
Right atrium - tricuspid valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary arteries - lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - mitral valve - left ventricle - aortic valve - aorta - foot - inferior vena cava
25
Normal resting heart rate
60 to 100 bpm
26
Stethoscope
instrument to listen and measure heart sounds
27
Heart beat
the SA node functions as the heart's pacemaker and initiates the heart beat causing both Atria to contract
the AV node delays the impulse so that the atria can empty. the impulse travels through the bundle of his and the purkinje fibers causing both ventricles to contract
contraction of heart muscle is known as systole while relaxation of heart muscle is diastole
the sound of a heart beat are caused by closing of the heart valves
28
ECG - electrocardiogram
a recording of the electrical events (changes) during a cardiac cycle ; this is the same thing as an EKG
29
Arrhythmia
irregular heart rate
30
Bradycardia
slow heart rate
31
Tachycardia
fast heart rate
32
Defibrillator
- common treatment for life-threatening cardiac arrhythmia
- The device shocks the heart and allows it to re-establish its normal rhythm
- The device can also be used to start a heart that has stopped.
33
Sphygmomanometer
blood pressure of the brachial artery (major artery of the arm)
shuts off the flow of blood to the brachial artery by increasing air in the cuff around the arm
34
Systolic pressure
read at the point where a heartbeat sound is heard after the cuff is slowly drained of air as the blood flows back into the brachial artery during ventricular contraction
35
Diastolic pressure
measured when the sound disappears as blood is flowing into the brachial artery and the ventricles relax
36
Elements of blood
2 distinct elements; the fluid portion; plasma and the solid portion; formed portion
37
Plasma
- Consists of water, dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, vitamins, minerals, hormones, and waste products
- Makes up 55% of blood volume
38
Formed portion
- Consists of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
- Makes up 45% of blood volume
39
Red Blood Cells
- Also known as erythrocytes
- Make up 44% of blood volume
- Specialized for oxygen transport as well as carbon dioxide transport
- Small in size (8 micrometers in diameter)
- Live for approx. 120 days
- Biconcave; increases surface area
40
Red blood cells
- RBCs do not have nuclei
- These cells are packed with hemoglobin, an iron containing molecule that chemically binds with oxygen
- The oxygen is taken to the tissues that require it and it diffuses from the hemoglobin to the cells
- Hemoglobin also transports small amounts of carbon dioxide from the tissues
41
Red Blood Cells
RBCs are produced in the bone marrow through a process called erythropoiesis
Note: the starting cell is a stem cell. The final cell is missing a nucleus
42
What makes out blood red?
Iron
43
Why are our veins blue?
light waves
44
What colour is deoxygenated blood?
darker red
45
White Blood Cells
- Also called leu(k)cocytes
- Part of the body’s response to infection
- Make up approx. 1% of total blood volume
- This number increases when a person is fighting an infection
- Have nuclei and appear colourless
46
White blood cells are divided into three categories?
- Granulocytes
- Monocytes
- Lymphocytes
47
Granulocytes
- Consist of neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
- Found in circulating blood
- Engulf and destroy foreign bodies (phagocytosis)
48
Monocytes
- (large cell, horseshoe shaped nucleus)
- Can leave the bloodstream and become specialized as macrophages
- Also found in circulating blood to engulf and destroy foreign bodies
49
Lymphocytes
- (nucleus is dark and takes up almost whole cell)
- Some produce proteins called antibodies that recognize foreign bodies (pathogens) and allow them to be destroyed
- Quite often destroyed by granulocytes and monocytes
50
Difference between RBCs and WBCs
- RBCs are smaller
- RBCs lack a nucleus
- Many types of WBCs
- More RBCs than WBCs
51
Where do all blood cells come from?
- All blood cells start off as STEM cells in bone marrow
- WBCs cells keep their nucleus. Platelets and
- RBCs cells lose their nucleus.
52
Anemia
- occurs if there are too few RBCs or the RBCs do not have enough hemoglobin
- This reduces the amount of oxygen traveling through the body
- A person with anemia is usually pale, and often feels tired
- This can be caused by a dietary deficiency in iron
53
Platelets
- also called thrombocytes
- Fragment of cells that form when larger cells in the bone marrow break apart
- Contain no nuclei
- Are produced by megakaryocytes
- Last in blood from 2-8 days
- Play a key role in blood clotting
54
Platelets and blood clotting
- Injury to a blood vessel starts a cascade of events
- Substances released by the broken blood vessel attract platelets
- The collecting platelets break apart and release an enzyme called thromboplastin
- As long as there are calcium ions present, thromboplastin will react with prothrombin (a protein in the plasma produced by the liver) to produce thrombin
- Thrombin is an enzyme that reacts with fibrinogen (another plasma protein) to produce fibrin
- Fibrin forms a mesh of strands around the injured area
55
Hemophilia
- Results from insufficient clotting proteins in the blood
- People are in constant danger of bleeding to death if they injure themselves
- Treated with injections of a substance called Factor VIII, which is a protein involved in coagulation what is missing from their blood
56
Sickle Cell Anemia
- alters the shape of a red blood cell making it look like a sickle
- harder and stickier cells, can block up areas
- Oxygen deprivation
57
The First Line of Defense
- (prevent the entrance of pathogens)
- Include: tears along with eyelashes, cilia of respiratory tract and stomach acid
- The outer layer of skin is a hostile environment for the survival of microorganisms; Inhospitable for growth of pathogens
58
The second line of Defense
- Involves non-specific white blood cells known as phagocytes
- Phagocytes engulf and destroy foreign pathogens in the bloodstream (three types of WBCs – macrophages, neutrophils and monocytes)
- Referred to as inflammatory response as the action of phagocytosis often results in swelling and a fever
59
The Third Line of Defense
- A group of specific white blood cells or “lymphocytes” target pathogens according to the specific markers they present
- Also known as antibody-mediated immunity
60
Immunity
- Immunity is developed using antibodies
- Antibodies are Y shaped proteins that recognize foreign substances and bind to the antigen receptor; act to neutralize or destroy them
61
Antigens
- are molecules that are
- found on the surface of the cells
and on pathogens
- are antibody generators (Anti-gen)
62
Specific Defenses (antibody-mediated)
- Immunity is also due to the function of lymphocytes in the circulatory system
- Lymphocytes are divided into two groups depending on where they mature
63
2 types of Lymphocytes?
B lymphocytes (B cells)
T lymphocytes (T cells)
64
T lymphocytes (T cells)
mature in the thymus gland(near the heart)
65
Helper T cell
recognizes antigens and give off chemical signals to stimulate other immune cells (like macrophages and B cells) into action
66
Killer T cell
bind with infected cells and destroy them by puncturing a hole in the cell membrane
67
Suppressor T cells
slow and suppress the process of other T cells so that normal tissue does not get destroyed
68
Memory T cells
remain in the bloodstream to act quickly if the antigen is encountered again
69
B lymphocytes (B cells)
- mature in the bone marrow
- recruited by T cells to the location of pathogens
- Different B-cells produce different antibodies
- When a B-cell becomes activated it enlarges and divides to produce plasma cells and memory B cells
70
Plasma cells
produce and release enormous
quantities of antibodies into the bloodstream
71
Memory B cells
remain in the blood and trigger another immune response when necessary
72
Autoimmune Disorder
When the T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body’s own cells as if they had foreign antigens
Ex. Rheumatoid arthritis
(inflammation of the lining of the joints) , Multiple Sclerosis
73
HIV
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
It is a virus that attacks cells that help the body fight infection. There is no cure, but it is treatable with medicine
74
Allergies
An exaggerated response by the immune system to a harmless material
75
Allergies
Immediate reaction: occurs within seconds of exposure, antibodies trigger the release of histamines making the area red and swollen
76
Allergies
Delayed reaction: set off by T cells, reaction is slower and lasts for a longer period of time
77
Blood Types
- The type of ANTIGEN present on the surface of RBC determines blood type.
- Blood from humans is classified into four groups, based on the antigens on the surface of RBC (A, B, AB, or O).
- Blood Typing involves identifying the antigens in a sample
- Three of the most important human antigens are called A, B, and Rh
78
Rh System
- An antigen that is sometimes on the surface of RBC is the Rh FACTOR, named after the rhesus monkey in which it was first discovered
- Rh-positive (Rh+), means that Rh Antigens are present
- People who do not have Rh Antigens are called Rh-negative (Rh-)
- If an Rh- person receives a transfusion of blood that has Rh+ antigens, Rh- antibodies will react with the antigen and agglutination (clumping) will occur
79
Who is the universal blood donor
O-
80
Who is the Universal Blood Recipient
AB+
81
Three functions of the lymphatic system
Fight infection, transport fluid (tissues to blood) and get rid of waste
82
What two structures in the lymph vessels push lymph forward?
One way valves and muscular walls
83
What are two purposes of lymphocytes?
They attack / breakdown bacteria
and filter harmful substances
84
How is immunity achieved
It is achieved when there are antibodies to that disease in a person's system
85
What is Variolation?
is an outdated medical technique that was used to protect people from smallpox.
86
What is SCIDs
Stands for Severe Combined Immune Deficiency
Biology Chapter 8
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