1
Q
Seymour Sarason
A
- 1974, introduced the concept of “psychological sense of community”
- proposed it should be the main focus of the psychological community
- psychological sense of community “is one of the major bases of self definition
2
Q
Mc Millan and Chavis (1976)
A
“Sense of community is a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together”
- proposed 4 criteria that had to be met for an individual to feel a sense of community: membership, influence, fulfillment of needs and shared emotional connection
3
Q
Membership
A
- provides a feeling of belonging
- establishes boundaries that divide those who belong from those who don’t
- can cause a feeling of inclusion/exclusion
- boundaries can be obvious or more subtle
- provide safety separating ‘us’ from ‘them’
4
Q
Membership includes 5 attributes
A
- Boundaries
- Emotional Safety
- A sense of belonging and identification
- personal investment
- a common symbol system
5
Q
Influence
A
- based on research of group cohesion
- McMillan and Chavis proposed that while people are more attracted to a community in which they have influence, community cohesiveness requires members to be prepared to conform
- Also speaks to the concept of giving first before asking for anything. Theory states:
“People who acknowledge that others’ needs, values and opinions matter to them are often the most influential group members, while those who always push to influence, try to dominate others, and ignore the wishes and opinions of others are often the least powerful members.” - They cited research that makes sense of these apparent opposing forces.
6
Q
Integration and the fulfillment of needs
A
- Membership of the group must be rewarding
- one of the rewards is status
- group success brings members close together
- Groups need to be organised to work at their best
- Members need to know each other’s strengths and weaknesses
- Roles and tasks need to be assigned
- Members must make sure that crucial tasks are done and that they are not completed for resources or status
- Leaders who have tried to foster cooperation have found that a powerful way of achieving this is to make rewards dependent on outcomes by the group
- Employers and teachers have adopted this approach to improve group productivity
7
Q
Aronsome and Colleagues (1978) - Integration and the fulfillment of needs
A
- showed that students in cooperative class rooms, who work together to achieve group goals and receive their marks on the basis of the class product, actually learn better than students in competitive or individualistic classrooms
- McMillan revised his and Chavis’ theory in 1996, he proposed another way individuals can have their needs met, which is by being a part of a group of people with shared values, who think and feel similarly to themselves with who they feel safe
8
Q
Shared Emotional Connection
A
- Refers to the feeling that we might have of being connected to another person through a common emotional response to a shared activity or event-sharing history
- Forged not only from being together but also the quality and importance of this interaction
- These experiences form a long lasting, emotional connection. That’s why a community that goes through a crisis often comes out much stronger because they’ve now shared a difficult situation, forging a strong emotional bond amongst members
9
Q
Impact of significant events
A
- world events are large-scale events that affect more than an individual
- they are often sources of stress for individuals
- This is true whether it is negative, such as a hurricane, war, or fire or whether it is positive like the olympic games
10
Q
Factors contributing to stress
A
There are three main factors about events that influence whether or not we experience them as stressful: predictability, controllability, experience thread or loss(changes)
11
Q
Individual differences in response to stressful events
A
People react differently even when they are exposed to the same event
12
Q
Kobasa (1979)
A
- Thought that personality differences could account for different responses to stress
- Carried out a study in which 600 executives and managers were asked to complete two questionnaires
- One was for personality, the other measured the stressful events and illnesses that respondents have experienced over the previous three years
13
Q
Kobasa (1979) Method
A
- She divided the respondents into two groups: one that had scored above average for illnesses and the other that scored below average
- The number of stressful events experienced by both groups was high
14
Q
Kobasa (1979) Findings
A
- When she compared the high stress/high illness group with the high stress/low illness group, she found the latter group: saw change as a challenge, felt more in control of their lives, had a sense of direction in both their work and personal lives
- She described this group as having a ‘hardy’ personality
15
Q
Kobasa (1979) Conclusion
A
Her conclusion was originally criticised because it was the cause, not the result, of the personality characteristcs
16
Q
Kobasa Later studies (1982)
A
- She later carried out a longitudinal study (1982) in which she followed a group of executives over a two year period and found that those identified at the start of the two years as having a hardy personality were less likely to become ill
- qualities that Kobasa saw in ‘hardy’ types are some characteristics that have been identified with the concept of resilience
17
Q
Qualities identified with resilience
A
- the capacity for making the most of small windows of opportunity
- having a deep rooted faith in a system of meaning
- having a healthy social support network
- having a wide comfort zone
18
Q
Resilience
A
- Research based on intervention studies suggests that to come extent an individual’s resilience can be trained
- Challenge based personal development programs work with the idea that personal growth and resilience can be taught by combining challenges with support
- By facing situations that are difficult or scary with sufficient support, we learn that we can deal with something that we earlier would have found impossible
