(Core 4) Patterns in Resource Consumption Case Studies

Question 1

Ecological Footprint MEDC

Answer 1

UK

• Total EF = 321,621,000 global hectares
• Per capita EF = 5.45 hectares
• UK residents are within the top 14% of the global population in terms of the size of their impact on the global environment
• EF = 3x land area of UK
• EF would need reducing 70% to be ecologically sustainable (reach fair Earthshare = 2hectares each)

Question 2

Ecological Footprint Region

Answer 2

Scotland

• 2001 EF = 27,082,915 ha or 5.35 ha per capita
• Direct energy = 18% EF (Domestic energy = 68% of this)
• Materials and waste = 38% EF
• Food = 29% EF (animal-based products 77%)
• Personal Transport = 11% EF (residents travelled 67,000 million km; car travel = 78%)
• Built land = 4% EF
• Water = 0.4% EF

Question 3

Local Scale Success: Footprint Reduction

Answer 3

Santa Monica (City near LA, California)

• elects representatives to local and state Gov that are willing to be leaders on environmental, social and economic issues (3 pillars of sustainability = city a sustainable development leader) - commitment to sustainability and political will/leadership = City of Santa Monica’s Sustainable City Program’s official adoption 1994
• Since 1990 reduction in energy component to EF (geothermal energy, reduction in natural gas and diesel fuel use) - 1990 EF 2,914sq miles or 9.7 ha per person, 2000 2,747sq miles or 9.3ha
• Increased recycling 1990s - per ton of glass, paper, plastic and metal recycled energy use reduced 50% - 62% recycling rate
• Solar powered electric vehicle changing stations, aggressive public transport promotions, city employee trip reduction programme

Question 4

Biocapacity (BC) vs. Ecological Footprint (EF) Examples

Answer 4

1. Australia
EF = 6.8 global hectares per capita
BC = 14.7 global hectares per capita
Ecological Reserve = 7.9
Population = 22mn
2. USA
EF = 8 global hectares per capita
BC = 3.9 global hectares per capita
Ecological Deficit = 4.1
Population = 313mn
3. China
EF = 2.2 global hectares per capita
BC = 1 global hectares per capita
Ecological Deficit = 1.2
Population = 1.3bn
4. Bangladesh
EF = 0.6 global hectares per capita
BC = 0.2 global hectares per capita
Ecological Deficit = 0.4 (EF exceeds BC 250% despite low consumption

Question 5

(neo-)Malthusian View 1

Answer 5

Haiti Mud Cakes

• Rural-Urban Migration: Port-au-Prince slums
• Food imported (poor agriculture) - bill leap 80% this year
• 2/3 live on less than 50p a day (rising food prices tough = expensive sellers move)
• Gov lifting emergency subsidies
• Mud cakes sell 1.3p each
• Children not at school and aid agencies strained
• Localised dairy jobs growing = £20mn milk import bill cut

Question 6

(neo-)Malthusian View 2

Answer 6

Sahel (soil erosion)
- 200-600mm rail annually
- famine, dust storms, resource conflict
Causes:
- Population growth 3% a year
- Deforestation
- Overgrazing (lost land: national parks, tourism and commercial farms)
- Temp. increase (droughts)
- Storms = water erosion

Question 7

(anti-Malthusian) Boserup View Case Study

Answer 7

Green Revolution (solution to food scarcity)

• High Yield Variety Seeds new strains
• more plants per area, less wind damage, shorter roots = fast uptake, more rice per plant
• prone to disease, hybrids, expensive, fertiliser use, increases development gap

Question 8

(anti-Malthusian) Boserup View Examples

Answer 8

• Price decline of natural resources e.g. petrol price declined long-term e.g. 1980-90 prices fell 18% copper, 40% chrome, 3% nickel, 72% tin, 57% tungsten
• Discoveries e.g. 1950 iron reserves globally 19bn tonnes, 1980 43bn
• Humans resourceful e.g. billiard balls made from ivory - demand increase = elephants scarce (breeding slower than demand) = look for substitutes = celluloid (plastic prototype a cheaper alternative)

Question 9

Energy Consumption - Oil

Answer 9

OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries)

• 12 countries - Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Venezuela
• Goal = determination of the best means for safeguarding the cartel’s interests
• pursues ensuring the stabilisation of prices of oil in international markets
• power has diminished since supplies found in Russia, North Sea and Gulf of Mexico and recent development of shale oil (fracking)

Question 10

Natural event = price fluctuations of oil

Answer 10

Hurricane Katrina

Question 11

Human events = price fluctuations of oil

Answer 11

• 1973 Oil Crisis = members OPEC proclaimed oil embargo in response to US decision to re-supply Israeli military during Yom Kippur War = quadrupling of oil price
• 1990 oil price shock = price increase after Iraqi invasion of Kuwait August - prices rose $21 a barrel July to $28 august, $46 mid-october

Question 12

Production and Consumption of Oil Examples

Answer 12

Production:
- Russia = 10,053,800 bbl/day
- Saudi Arabia = 9,693,200 bbl/day
- USA = 7,441,200 bbl/day
- China = 4,372,000 bbl/day
Consumption:
- USA = 18,840,000 bbl/day
- China = 9,790,000 bbl/day
- Russia = 3,196,000 bbl/day

Question 13

Attempts to diversify energy suppliers

Answer 13

Lithuania completed a Liquefied Natural Gas terminal 2014 to break monopoly of Russian gas (ensure independence in energy/ energy security)

Question 14

Oil and Conflict

Answer 14

Oil alleged to be essential to the Gulf War (US/UK invasion about freedom and democracy but oil significant)

Question 15

Oil and International Relations

Answer 15

USA and Venezuela

• Venezuela sells oil to USA but threatened to cut them if Colombia (USA allied neighbour) attacked Venezuela (due to allegations Venezuela gives haven to Colombian rebels
• Would badly impact Venezuela Gov. as depends on oil sales (USA top buyer)
• Colombia not threatened military so threat to USA likely to show not stand for aggression
• Chavez (Venezuela President) cut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after evidence shown for Colombian rebel camps in Venezuela

Question 16

Oil and geopolitical stance now and future

Answer 16

USA

• oil prices could go up in 2017 (political transitions in USA one factor) - Trump into office amongst instabilities with Russia/Syria (uncertainty about foreign and security policy - North American oil production potential to mitigate this
• USA shale production buried peak oil, balanced supply with demand, increase 2017
• Trump clear on oil - not impose new regulations that would curtail how and where companies can drill for oil (although much state level)
• US producers will add market stability - US shale oil production from $79 to $48 per barrel
• 2014 - OPEC produced more = plummeting prices curtained N American oil investments

Question 17

Environmental Impacts of Changing Oil

Answer 17

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Gulf of Mexico

• largest offshore spill US impact
• Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion = spill from sea floor oil gusher
• April 2010
• fires for 36 hours
• coral reefs affected - blocked sunlight / chemical pollution
• spill impossible to contain
• oil gushed out 3 months, 4.9mn barrels, 30yrs to recover
• 9 species dolphin at risk
• Migrating birds (50,000 brown pelicans) use beaches rest stops = contamination risk
• tourism + fishing damaged
• anthracene levels x2 accepted (toxic)
• cancer-forming carcinogens (human health risk)
• 8 US national parks at risk; 400+ animal species; 1,200 fish species
• 13 died, 17 injured
• Nov 2012 11,000km2 Gulf closed
• 20% bluefin tuna killed
• Nov 2012 6,800+ animals dead
• bioaccumulation / magnification e.g. whale sharks feed on plankton
• Nov 2012 BP plead guilty
• BP $4.525bn fines (ongoing)
• BP 4yrs Gov monitoring safety practices + ethics + temp ban from new contracts w/US Gov
• 675 US clams + oysters + 75% US shrimp normally produced risk contamination

Question 18

Fracking 1

Answer 18

UK

• suggest trillions cubic feet shale gas beneath UK - reserves found esp N England
• Gov believe could contribute to energy needs/security (electricity at half co2 emissions) + thousands new jobs + reduce bills
• Downing Street said fast-track Shale gas planning applications - Labour called moratorium until sure safe - Govs. Scotland, Wales, N Ireland oppose fracking until research environmental impact
• Shale gas test drilling = earthquake 1.5, 2.2 Blackpool
• Fracking uses huge amounts water + carcinogenic chemicals may contaminate groundwater

Question 19

Fracking 2

Answer 19

USA

• 16% wells spill annually
• 6,600 releases wells 10yr period in 4 states (67% North Dakota - largest 100,000 litres)
• contamination, risk water supplies + human health
• 6,648 spills 2005-2014
• North Dakota 4,453 incidents (spill over 42 US gallons reported, 210 gallons Colorado + New Mexico)

Question 20

Dam

Answer 20

Three Gorges Dam, China

• Yangtze River
• Reservoir discharges over 700km3 water annually
• Dam 26 turbines + generates up to 18,000MW annually
• Advantages: reduce oil dependency, national pride (produces 50% more next biggest dam), protect 10mn+ residents from flooding, improved navigation (boats now reach upstream Chongqing), created jobs construction, tourist destination + leisure opportunities, reservoir store water
• Disadvantages: sedimentation, increased river traffic, Yangtze river dolphin extinction, seismically active region, reduced discharge/velocity downstream, 1.3mn+ relocated, fertile land loss, $70bn build, archeological treasures drowned, deforestation, flooding downstream still

Question 21

Conservation Strategies: Plastic Bags

Answer 21

• 800,000 tonnes plastic bags used Eu annually; 4bn+ bags thrown away year
• Pacific Ocean ‘plastic soup’ over 15,000,000km2

Complete Ban

• Italy banned non-biodegradable bags
• Bangladesh banned thin bags (clogging drainage system = flooding Bangladesh)
• Rwanda banned all bags
• Tanzania banned ultra-thin bags
• UAE banned all except oxo-biodegradables
• UK use rose 5% 2010 after 4yrs decline - Friends of Earth in favour as long as doesn’t increase wealth disparities
• US local laws - city of LA no ban, LA county does

Bag Tax

• Republic Ireland charge 12p bag = 95% reduction plastic bag litter + within year 90% shoppers using life-long bags
• levy changes according to no. bags used
• by 2007 raised 75m euros from levy = Environment Fund
• Wales, N Ireland 5p levy
• Wales threatens shops give free bags w/ £5,000 fine

Paper Bags

• Many used US due to powerful wood pulp industry
• biodegradable in landfill but higher carbon footprint

Biodegradable Bags
- European commission considering intro. better labelling

Question 22

Conservation Strategies: Recycling Policies in a named area

Answer 22

Tunbridge Wells (Borough Council)

• Green bins = general household waste + non-recyclable - no space = black sack collection service
• Brown bins = food waste, green garden waste + paper - no space = Hessian sacks
• Green recycling boxes = one plastic, cartons, cans, foil; one paper + cardboard
• Bins collected from properties; extra waste North Farm Waste Recycling Centre; residents take glass recycling sites (glass colour separated)
• High littering local areas + prevent need process separation = saving energy + money

Question 23

Conservation Strategies: Resource Substitution

Answer 23

Biofuels substitute for petroleum-based aviation fuels

• Biofuels release CO2 but growing plants absorbs comparable amount gas
• Issues: loss biodiversity, food crops price driven up, not sustainable + distraction according to environmentalists, (Greenpeace argued Virgin airline should focus on halting airport expansion instead using biofuels), more likely freeze high altitudes

Question 24

Conservation Strategies: Efficiency in Housing

Answer 24

BedZED UK

• Social housing development London
• Built w/ heat efficient, recycled / reclaimed materials
• own combined heat + power fed by wood waste
• double glazing = reduced window heat loss 50%
• loft + wall insulation cuts loss 33%
• low energy light bulbs, energy efficient appliances
• 33% less water, emits 40% less carbon
• CHP failed 2005, Reed beds filtering waste water for use in toilets + gardens out of order 7 months, expensive, carbon neutral hard to achieve (most drive cars - car sharing scheme)
• Typical UK lifestyle carbon footprint = 6.19, BedZED conventional = 4.35, BedZED ideal = 1.9

Question 25

Conservation Strategies: International 1

Answer 25

Kyoto Protocol 1997 (Japan) - ways to manage climate change / achieve environmental sustainability - reduce fossil fuel consumption - by 2012 every country reduce carbon emissions 5% below levels 1990; Eu countries 8% (EU countries hit quota by 2012) - China exempt as developing - US not ratify for this reason - carbon credits to trade emissions (ensure global reduction doesn't matter who) - countries producing more quota buy from ones don't e.g. Iceland sell

Question 26

Conservation Strategies: International 2

Answer 26

Paris Agreement - Paris Climate Conference Dec 2015 - 195 countries adopted legally binding global climate deal - Agreed meet every 5yrs set more ambitious targets - track progress - non-party stakeholders invited to support efforts - EU taking steps implement targets reduce emissions 40% by 2030 (forefront of efforts) - Reduce emissions - keep increase global average temp below 2oc above pre-industrialisation levels; limit increase to 1.5oc - strengthen societies ability to deal w/ climate change impacts, international support/ developed help developing