1
Q
What are the developmental motor milestones?
A
keeping head erect - 6 weeks rolling over, 2-3 months sitting along, 6-7 months crawling, 7-8 months standing with support, 7-8 months standing alone, 11 months first step and walking alone, 11-13 months walking up steps, 16 months
Rates of motor development are similar between boys and girls.
2
Q
Toilet training is not recommended to begin before what age?
A
24 months
3
Q
When do children enter a new stage of biological development that involves learning motor sequencing behaviors more smoothly/accurately?
A
motor development progresses rapidly in preschool- especially gross motor skills like jumping/running.
motor sequencing behaviors become more smooth and fluent around 6-7 years old- when athletic prowess starts to become more apparent too.
4
Q
At birth, the brain is _____ % of its adult size.
A
25% to 33%
5
Q
By age two the brain is about what % of its adult size?
A
75%
6
Q
By age 5 the brain is _____% of its adult size
A
90%
7
Q
T/F: At birth, the infant’s brain contains the majority of neurons it will ever have.
A
True
8
Q
How does brain development occur in the infant/young child?
A
- neurons grow in size, develop more axons and dendrites, and increase their connections.
- synaptic connections are thought to be strengthened in response to experience
9
Q
If the dominant hemisphere is damaged how is language function impacted? Does it depend on age?
A
If before age 7 or 8, plasticity - children can recover language function if dominant hemisphere is damaged
if after age 7 or 8- progress is limited
this is b/c by 7/8 y.o. considerable sensory integration has occurred, and brain has lateralized functioning at that point. b/c of this, there is a more firmly established pattern of handedness and, footedness.
By age 7 or 8 there is also increasingly mature performance on tests of visual-motor and neuroperceptual skills.
10
Q
Children who are brought up unilingually have difficulty learning to speak an unaccented second language by which age?
A
10 y.o.
11
Q
Does brain development continue beyond childhood? If so, how?
A
Yes to some extent.
Example: Mylenation- continues into a person’s twenties, enhancing processing speed, attention span, and frontal lobe functioning
12
Q
Describe puberty in boys and girls
A
Both- growth hormones and gonadal hormones initiate and sustain a growth spurt that causes dramatic increases in height, weight, and the skeletal system.
Girls- occurs between 10-12 years of age, includes menarche (first menstrual period)
Boys- occurs between 12 and 14 years of age, includes spermarche (first ejaculation)
Both- development of secondary sexual characteristics develop.
13
Q
Early physical maturation has different effects for boys and girls in the US. Describe.
A
Boys who physically mature early
- overall, more positive psychological adjustment
- better scholastic performance, better self-image, greater popularity.
- one study suggests greater risk for exhibiting behavior problems.
Girls who physically mature early:
- higher academic achievement and independence
- lower self-esteem, poorer body image, more conflicts with parents
- when these early maturing girls lower their academic achievement, they actually become more popular and have a more positive self-image.
Some researchers have found that by 12th grade, differences between early and late maturers have disappeared for both boys and girls.
14
Q
Describe menopause
A
- end of the menstrual cycle
- usually occurs between 45 and 55
decreases in estrogen production result in physical changes - current research does not support the MYTH that menopause is a time of psychological instability, loss of sexual interest, mood swings and depression
15
Q
What does the term “male climacteric” describe?
A
- the more gradual changes that occur in men due to decreases testosterone
- e.g., weight loss, loss of muscle strength, graying of hair, diminished sexual responsiveness.
16
Q
What is primary aging?
A
- The upper limit on the human life span (between 110-120 years) is thought to be due to primary aging- the inevitable changes in physical and mental processes.
Different explanations include: - programmed theories- aging = genetically controlled
- wear-and-tear theory- daily stressors wear out the body’s cell
17
Q
What is secondary aging?
A
- secondary aging results from disease, disuse, and neglect of the body
- may account for much of the deterioration typically associated with growing old in our society
18
Q
T/F: THe sex drive diminishes with age
A
False.
Sex drive does NOT diminish with age.
- likelihood of sexual activity in the later years is closely related to frequency of sexual activity during younger years.
- men who have been sexually active can generally engage in some sort of sexual activity well into their 70/80s
- women are physiologically able to be sexually active as long as they live.
19
Q
What is the main barrier to sexual activity for women in older age?
A
lack of an available partner
20
Q
Health Belief Model
A
- how perceptions of vulnerability and beliefs about illness influence health behavior.
- multicausal
- health behavior results from joint influence of:
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTOR - Perceived susceptibility to disease/perceives seriousness of the disease
- perceived benefits of preventative action vs perceived barriers to preventative action
21
Q
What is the social buffer hypothesis?
A
- individuals who perceive themselves as having an adequate social network are at reduced risk of emotional distress.
- size of network is not the important factor- the person’s perception that they have an adequate social network is.
22
Q
What is the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale, and when was it developed?
A
1967
- developed to measure life stress and to be used as a tool for examining the stress-illness relationshp.
- consists of 43 items ranging in point value from most stressful at 100 (death of a spouse), 73 (divorce), 50 (marriage), retirement (45), death of a close friend (37), foreclosure on a home (30).
23
Q
What are the main stages of language development?
A
Crying
Cooing (between 6 weeks and 3 months)
Babbling (6-10 months)
Word Comprehension (by about 9-10 months- understand words like “no” or their own name)
Echolalia (at about 9-10 months)
Holophrasic speech (typically 12-18 months)- use a single word or syllable to express a complete thought
Telegraphic Speech (between 18-24 months) - put two words together to express an idea
24
Q
At what age do children lose the ability to differentiate sounds that are not part of the language they hear spoken?
A
Infants lose this abliity around 9 to 10 months of age, corresponding to when they are developing echolalia
25
Holophrasic speech
(typically 12-18 months)- use a single word or syllable to express a complete thought
includes phoneme (e.g. da), morpheme (e.g. daddy)
26
Telegraphic Speech
(between 18-24 months) - put two words together to express an idea
27
Describe the Nativist view of language development
Noam Chomsky
- hypothesized that children are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD)- a prewiring for language, so they require only minimal exposure to adult language in order to develop speech.
- LAD enables children's brains to analyze the language that they hear around them and to make sense of its rules of grammar and syntax.
Support: children generally learn their native language in the same sequence, without receiving any formal instructions. Newborns seem to have the capacity to differentiate between similar sounds.
28
Describe the Nurturist View of Language Development.
- language is acquired by means of interactions with the environment, in process of imitation and reinforcement.
- children initially make random sounds, and only those that are reinforced by adults are eventually repeated.
- children are also reinforced for imitating the sounds they hear
- learn grammar through exposure to examples of correct syntax
29
Describe the Interactionist View of Language Development.
- inborn mechanism for acquiring language that is influenced by biological and cognitive maturation, as well as interactions with the environment
30
What is "motherese"?
child-directed speech
- speaking slowly, using simple statements, smal words, high-pitched voice.
occurs across all languages and social classes
31
What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
- speakers of different languages actually think differently because of the structure of their languages
- Language influences how we think.
- support for this hypothesis is mixed
32
What is Dyslexia? Describe
- refers to difficulties in reading or a reading disorder.
- difficulty matching speech sounds with written words
- prevalence rates for dyslexia range from 3 to 20% of school population
- equally common in boys and girls
- may have a genetic component
- more common in children from lower SES and larger families
33
Describe Deep Dyslexia
mistakenly reads a given word as one with a similar meaning (e.g. reads coat instead of jacket)
34
Describe Surface Dyslexia
- person cannot recognize words, and instead, sounds them out.
- mispronounces irregular words ("come"- come is irregular b/c pronounced differently than other words with similar spelling like home or dome)
35
Describe Phonological Dyslexia
person cannot read non-words aloud; otherwise reading might be near perfect.
36
Describe the Neglect type of Dyslexia
- involves misreading of the first or last half of a word
| - example: person reads "slap" as "slit"
37
Jean Piagest used an idiographic approach to study child development. What does this mean?
idiographic- intensive study of relatively few children
38
According to Piaget, children have an innate capacit for what?
adaptive to the environment
39
Piaget's theory
Theory of Genetic epistemology
- proposes that we possess innate, genetic intellectual capabilities that make growth of abstract thought possible.
- Epigenesis- growth and development occur in a series of stages, each of which is built on successful mastery of the previous stage.
40
What does epigenesis mean?
idea that growth and development occur in a series of stages, and that each is built on successful mastery of the previous stage
41
Piaget stated that cognitive development takes place as a result of three interconnected principles: what are they?
Organization- development of increasingly complex systems of knowledge (schemata)
Adaptation - the way a person deals with new information (assimilation and accomodation)
Equilibration- the need for and striving toward equilibrium, or balance between the person and the outside environment, as well as among the person's schemata.
42
What is a Schemata?
According to Piaget, schemata are cognitive structures of organized patterns of behavior that people use as a guide for thinking about or acting in a particular situations.
Example: babies initially have independent schemas for looking and grasping. as babies mature they integrate the separate schemas into a single schema that allows for looking at an object while holding it.
43
The first of Piaget's principles of cognitive development: Organization
- knowledge is organized as mental representations of reality to help individual make sense of their experiences.
- schemata- organized patterns of behavior that people use as a guide for thinking about or acting in a particular situation
44
Describe Piaget's principle of Adaptation
- the way a person deals with new information.
- involves changes to the individual's schemata to enhance the ability to survive
- Assimilation and Accommodation work together to produce cognitive growth:
Assimilation- process of taking in a new experience and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures. (e.g. child calling an airplane a "bird"- assimilating new experience (plane) into existing schema (bird)
Accommodation- involves adjusting to reality demands by reorganizing or modifying the existing cognitive structure or schema. when the child creates a new schema for planes, accommodation is occurring.
45
Describe Piaget's principle of Equilibration
- describes the need for and striving toward equilibrium (balance between the person and the outside environment, as well as among the person's schemata)
- need for equilibrium helps determine the extent to which child uses assimilation or accommodation to organize experiences
- example: if child cannot understand a new situation using current schemata, the child will move toward accommodation, develop new patterns, and thereby restore equilibrium.
46
Decalage
uneveness within a given child's cognitive development
47
What are Piaget's four stages leading up to the capacity for adult thought, and what age ranges are typical for each?
1. Sensorimotor (0-2)
2. Preoperational (2 to 7)
3. Concrete Operational (7-11)
4. Formal Operational (11-end of adolescence)
48
Describe Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage
- infants learn through sensory observation and gain control of their motor functions through activity, exploration, and manipulation of the environment.
- spatial, visual, and tactile world of the infant expands- child actively interacts with the environment using previously learned behavior patterns.
OBJECT PERMANENCE- critical accomplishment during the sensorimotor stage, occurs after 3-4 months. Ability to understand that objects continue to exist independent o the child's involvement with them. Infants are able to maintain a mental image (representation) even when the object is not present. (this has been used to explain development of separation protest and stranger anxiety).
49
What is OBJECT PERMANENCE and what stage does it develop in?
- critical accomplishment during the sensorimotor stage, occurs after 3-4 months. Ability to understand that objects continue to exist independent o the child's involvement with them. Infants are able to maintain a mental image (representation) even when the object is not present. (this has been used to explain development of separation protest and stranger anxiety).
50
What is SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION and what stage does it develop in?
Near end of sensorimotor stage, with emergence of language, child becomes more capabable of symbolic representation
51
Describe Piaget's Preoperational Stage
- from age 2 to 7
- characterized by increased use of symbols and language
- intuitive thinking, egocentrism, phenomenalistic causality, animism, irreversibility, centration
52
Describe Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage
- 7 to 11 years
- child can now operate and act on real or imagined concrete objects
- operational thought
- conservation
53
Describe Piaget's Formal Operational Stage
- 11 through end of adolescence.
- characterized by ability to apply operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects.
- capable of hypothetical (what if) thinking, deductive reasoning (if... then...)
- acquire abstract reasoning skills to comprehend algebra
- Metacognition- ability to think about one's thinking.
- explore personal values, compare them with others.
* Not all people entre this stage- some will remain in concrete operational stage throughout their lives.
54
Constructivism:
- important concept associated with Piaget, according to CONSTRUCTIVISM, a person develops new knowledge based on the foundation of previous learning, and by interacting with objects and events in the environment.
- constructivists place emphasis on the student, rather than the teacher, when it comes to schooling.
- teacher= facilitator who assists student to construct their own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.
55
Rosenthal Effect
Research by Rosenthal and colleagues has suggested that teachers' expectations have an impact on students' academic performance (Rosenthal Effect)
High expectations for students, students tend to perform better than when teachers expect little from them.
56
Describe gender effects regarding teacher expectations and interactions with students
During preschool and elementary school, both male and female teachers tend to interact more often with male students, though these interactions tend to be more critical or negative.
Teachers of both sexes tend to praise
Females for EFFORT AND COOPERATION
Males for ABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT
57
Research on Cooperative Learning Classes has found:
In Cooperative Learning Classes, students of different ability levels and cultural background work together on completing assignments or projects
- beneficial for low ability students (improved academic functioning)
- may or may not help academic performance of high ability students
- effective in reducing cultural biases and stereotypes
58
Describe each of James Marcia's identity states/statuses for adolescents
Identity Achievement- Person has actively struggled and explored several options and then developed own set of goals and values. Thus, the person has RESOLVED THE CRISIS AND MADE A COMMITMENT.
Foreclosure- Adolescent has committed to a goal without exploring other alternatives. Adolescent tends to accept a ready-made identity chosen by an authority figure. For example, a person becomes a physician because both parents are physicians and believe that their child should also be a physician. Thus, there has been an ABSENCE OF CRISIS YET A COMMITMENT HAS BEEN MADE.
Moratorium- person has not yet made a definite commitment and is in active process of struggling with decisions and exploring interests/needs. Adolescent is IN CRISIS WITH AN ABSENCE OF COMMITMENT. Most typical outcome will be some resolution of the crisis with the ability to commit.
Identity Diffusion - adolescent who lacks self-direction, is not committed to goals and values, and is not seriously considering options or trying to develop goals. BOTH CRISIS AND COMMITMENT ARE ABSENT. Some people in this category become aimless drifters.
59
Activity Theory
- one of two theories to explain successful aging.
| - old age is fulfilling when the person remains active and involved as long as possible
60
Disengagement Theory
- one of two theories to explain successful aging BUT this theory has been largely discredited.
- argues that successful aging involves a natural and graceful withdrawal from life roles that a person can no longer carry out due to the physical limitations of aging.
61
T/F: Marital Satisfaction tends to increase as a couple moves into late adulthood.
True
62
Describe the pattern of marital satisfaction over time (i.e. as couples get older)
Curvilinear
satisfaction is high at time of marriage, dips during child-rearing years, and becomes higher again once all of the children have completed their teens
63
Gender differences in old age
Older men- more social status, income, sexual partners
Older women- more friends, more involved with family, but have lower status and less income (Elderly females represent one of the lowest income levels in the US)
64
The normal grieving process has been described in four stages. Name and describe each.
Numbness: may feel little emotion other than emptiness or numbness, signs of denial may be present
Yearning: when obvious feelings of distress emerge, including intense longings, guilt feelings, anger and resentment
Disorganization and Despair: When life seems to lose its meaning and the mourner feels apathetic, submissive, and lacking in energy
Resolution or Reorganization: when the survivor gradually accepts the loss both intellectually and emotionally and begins a new self-identity (e.g., as a single person who is no longer part of a couple)
65
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross proposed that most people go through five states when facing their own death. What are they?
DABDA
```
Denial/Disbelief
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
```
66
Thomas & Chess (1977) described three major categories of temperament into which 65% of babies can be reliably separated. Describe each
```
Easy temperament (40% of all babies)- regular, adaptable, mildly intense style that is positive and responsive
Difficult temperament (10%)- moody, easily frustrated, tense, and overreact to most situations
Slow-to-warm-up infants (15%)- mild in responding, somewhat shy and withdrawn, need time to adjust to new experiences or people
```
67
One of the greatest influences on child's development is thought to be _________ between the child's temperament and environement
goodness-of-fit
Example: A slow-to-warm-up child might be easily parented by an undemanding mother but might have a hard time with a performance-oriented mother.
68
at birth, the infant appears to display one of three emotional states:
distress, contentment, interest
69
Social Referencing
- becomes common around age 1, as children learn to detect and share affective states with their parents
- child will use cues from another person (mom) to deal with affective uncertainty (e.g. whether a situation is dangerous or exciting)
70
What is Object Constancy as described by Mahler?
- Object constancy depends on the child's capacity to recall an image of the caretaker as soothing even when the caretaker is absent.
- develops during preschool, important for facilitating emotional regulation
- preschooler needs to develop ability to self-soothe, and to reduce and tolerate the anxiety that emerges in response to separation from the primary caretaker.
71
Modern Evolution Theory holds that:
- basic emotions originate in the subcortical limbic system and therefore evolved prior to thought (which occurs in the more evolved cortical system).
72
Risk factors in development are generally delineated at 3 different levels- what are they?
Individual - defective genes, difficult temperament
Family- mentally ill parent, child abuse
Community- discrimination, poverty
73
One way to determine overall risk for developmental psychopathology is to add up the specific risk factors faced, thereby creating what?
An Adversity Index
74
Garmezy proposed an interpersonal view of protective factors, stressing what three categories?
- personality disposition of the child
- supportive family environment
- external support system that reinforces a child's coping efforts
Arjun Licensing Exam Flashcards
flashcards
Decks in class (28)
# Cards
-
Racial/Cultural Development Model11
-
Erickson24
-
IO theories77
-
Freud's Psychosexual Development16
-
endocrine system14
-
Memory22
-
Aphasias7
-
Test Construction26
-
Ainsworth attachment4
-
Kohlberg7
-
Random83
-
Developmental74
-
Operant Conditioning23
-
Ethics and Professional Issues25
-
I/O69
-
Psychopharmacology: Drug Names70
-
Psychopharmacology (Side Effects and Medications for Symptoms/Disorders)41
-
Biological Bases of Behavior II: Neurons and the Neurotransmitters17
-
Biological Bases of Behavior IV: Cognitive Disorders57
-
Biological Bases of Behavior V: Special Topics22
-
Biological Bases of Behavior I: The Nervous System28
-
Theories and Principles of Learning and Behavior42
-
White Racial Identity Model13
-
Homosexual Identity Model8
-
Piaget Cognitive Development17
-
EPPP Review96
-
Psychopharmacology41
-
Ethics & Professional Issues73
