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1
Q

Introduction to The Muscular System

A

Skeletal muscles: movement in environment•Smooth muscles: intestines, ureters, veins and arteries•Cardiac muscle: pumps blood through heart and blood vessels•40–50% of body weight

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2
Q

The Types of Muscle

A
  1. Skeletal
  2. Smooth
  3. Cardiac
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3
Q

Skeletal

A

Skeletal: voluntary, striated, and multinucleated

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4
Q

Smooth

A

Smooth: involuntary, nonstriated, and uninucleated

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5
Q

Cardiac

A

Cardiac: involuntary, striated, and uninucleated

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6
Q

The Anatomy of Skeletal or Striated Muscle

A
  • Skeletal muscle cell surrounded by sarcolemma
  • Fasciculi: bundles of fascicles
  • Fascicles: individual bundles of muscle fibers
  • Perimysium: surrounds each fascicle
  • Epimysium: covers the perimysium
  • Fascia: covers the epimysium•Myosin: A bands
  • Actin: I bands
  • Z lines
  • H zone
  • Sarcomere: between two adjacent Z lines–Actual contraction process occurs here
  • Sarcotubular system–T system and sarcoplasmic reticulum
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7
Q

Introduction to The Physiology of Muscle Contraction

A
  • Motor unit: all muscle cells innervated by one motor neuron
  • Muscle cell properties–Excitability–Conductivity–Contractility–Elasticity
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8
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Neuroelectrical Factors

A

•Na+ higher concentration outside muscle cell
•K+ higher concentration inside muscle cell
•Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative
•Electrical potential: rush of Na+ inside cell
•K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance
•Action potential
–Calcium released
–Troponin and tropomyosin action inhibited
–Activated myosin links to actin filaments

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9
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Chemical Interactions

A
  • Myosin heads contain ATP
  • ATP releases energy upon myosin/action link
  • Energy released used to pull action
  • Sodium: potassium pump pumps out sodium
  • Resting potential restored
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10
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Energy Sources

A

•ATP: energy source for muscle contraction
•ATP production
–Glycolysis
–Krebs citric acid cycle
–Electron transport
•Alternate sources: fatty acids and phosphocreatine

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11
Q

The Muscle Twitch

A

•Stimulus > latent period > contraction > relaxation
•Contraction strength depends on
–Strength, speed, and duration of stimulus
–Weight of load
–Temperature
•All-or-none law

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12
Q

Muscle Tone

A

•State of partial contraction throughout whole muscle
•Maintains pressure on abdominal contents
•Helps maintain blood pressure
•Aids digestion
•Types
–Isotonic, isometric

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13
Q

The Anatomy of Smooth Muscle

A 
•Found in hollow structures
•Involuntary, uninucleated, nonstriated
•Arrangement (two layers)
–Longitudinal (outer)
–Circular (inner)
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14
Q

The Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle

A
  • Autonomic nervous system control
  • Involuntary, uninucleated, striated
  • Intercalated disks: coordinate contraction
  • Cardiac muscles: contract, relax, and contract 75 times/minute
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15
Q

The Naming and Actions of Skeletal Muscles

A
  • Action
  • Shape
  • Origin and insertion
  • Location
  • Direction of fibers
  • Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle
  • Insertion: movable attachment of muscle
  • Tendons: attach muscle to bone
  • Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon
  • Flexors: bend limb at a joint
  • Extensor: straighten limb at a joint
  • Abductors: move limb away from midline
  • Adductors: bring limb toward midline
  • Rotators: revolve limb around axis
  • Dorsiflexors: raise the foot
  • Plantar flexors: lower the foot
  • Supinators: turn palm upward
  • Pronators: turn palm downward
  • Levators: raise a part of the body
  • Depressors: lower a part of the body
  • Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action
  • Antagonists: oppose agonists
  • Synergists: assist prime movers
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16
Q

Origin

A

Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle

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17
Q

Insertion

A

Insertion: movable attachment of muscle

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18
Q

Tendons

A

Tendons: attach muscle to bone

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19
Q

Aponeurosis:

A

Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon

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20
Q

Flexors

A

Flexors: bend limb at a joint

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21
Q

Extensor

A

Extensor: straighten limb at a joint

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22
Q

Abductors

A

Abductors: move limb away from midline

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23
Q

Adductors

A

Adductors: bring limb toward midline

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24
Q

Rotators

A

Rotators: revolve limb around axis

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25
Dorsiflexors
Dorsiflexors: raise the foot
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Plantar flexors:
Plantar flexors: lower the foot
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Supinators
Supinators: turn palm upward
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Pronators
Pronators: turn palm downward
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Levators
•Levators: raise a part of the body
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Depressors
Depressors: lower a part of the body
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Prime movers or agonists
Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action
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Antagonists
Antagonists: oppose agonists
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Synergists
Synergists: assist prime movers
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The Function and Location of Selected Skeletal Muscles: Superficial Muscles
Superficial muscles of the body, anterior view | Superficial muscles of the body, posterior view
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Muscles of Facial Expression
* Occipitalis * Frontalis * Zygomaticus * Levator labii superioris * Orbicularis oris and buccinator
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Muscles of Mastication
* Masseter * Temporalis * Pterygoid
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Muscles of the Eye
* Superior rectus•Inferior rectus * Medial rectus•Lateral rectus * Superior and inferior oblique
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Muscles Moving the Head
Sternocleidomastoid –Contraction of both causes flexion of neck –Contraction of one causes rotation to left or right
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Muscles Moving the Shoulder Girdle
* Levator scapulae * Rhomboids * Pectoralis minor * Trapezius * Serratus anterior
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Muscles Moving the Humerus
* Pectoralis major * Latissimus dorsi * Teres minor * Deltoid * Supraspinatus * Infraspinatus
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Muscles Moving the Elbow
* Brachialis * Biceps brachii * Brachioradialis * Triceps brachii * Anconeus
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Muscles Moving the Wrist
* Flexor carpi | * Extensor carpi
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Muscles Moving the Hand
* Supinator * Pronator teres * Pronator quadratus
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Muscles Moving the Thumb
* Flexor pollicis * Extensor pollicis * Adductor pollicis * Abductor pollicis * Opponens pollicis
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Muscles Moving the Fingers
* Flexor digitorum * Extensor digitorum * Interossei
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Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
* External oblique * Internal oblique * Transversus abdominis * Rectus abdominis
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Muscles of Respiration or Breathing
•Diaphragm –Main muscle •External and internal intercostals –Expand the ribs
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Muscles Moving the Femur
* Psoas * Iliacus * Gluteus maximus * Gluteus medius * Gluteus minimus * Tensor fascia lata
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Muscles Moving the Knee Joint
* Biceps femoris * Semitendinosus * Semimembranosus * Popliteus * Gracilis * Sartorius * Quadriceps femoris
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Muscles Moving the Foot
* Gastrocnemius * Tibialis posterior * Soleus * Peroneus longus * Plantaris * Tibialis anterior * Peroneus tertius
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Muscles Moving the Toes
* Flexor hallucis * Extensor hallucis * Flexor digitorum * Extensor digitorum * Abductor hallucis * Abductor digiti minimi
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The Nervous SystemIntroduction, Spinal Cord, and Spinal Nerves Introduction
•Control center and communication network –Directs functions of body’s organs and systems –Interprets external environment –Determines reaction to change •Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Organization
•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord •Peripheral nervous system –Afferent peripheral system •Sensory neurons –Efferent peripheral system •Somatic •Autonomic: sympathetic and parasympathetic
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•Central nervous system
•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
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•Peripheral nervous system
•Peripheral nervous system | –Afferent peripheral system
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•Sensory neurons
•Sensory neurons | –Efferent peripheral system
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Neuroglia Cells
* Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier * Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation * Microglial: phagocytosis * Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain * Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system
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Astrocytes
•Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier
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Oligodendroglia
•Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation
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Microglial
Microglial: phagocytosis
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Ependymal
•Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain
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Schwann
Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system
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The Structure of a Neuron
•Cell body •Dendrites: receptive areas •Axon: extension of cell body –Schwann cells –Nodes of Ranvier •Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body •Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon •Unipolar: one process extending from cell body •Receptors: detect environmental stimuli •Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site •Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing •Motor: reaction to the stimulus
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•Dendrites
•Dendrites: receptive areas
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Axon
•Axon: extension of cell body –Schwann cells –Nodes of Ranvier
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Multipolar
Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body
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Bipolar
Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
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Unipolar:
Unipolar: one process extending from cell body
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Receptors
Receptors: detect environmental stimuli
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Sensory
Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site
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Internuncial
•Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing
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Motor
•Motor: reaction to the stimulus
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The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse
``` •Nerve cell fiber resting potential –Na+ concentration higher on outside –K+ concentration higher on inside –Negative charge on inside –Positive charge on outside •Depolarization: Na+ rush inside cell •Repolarization: K+ rush out to restore balance •Depolarization: Repolarization moves in one direction •Myelinated vs. unmyelinated •All-or-none law ```
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The Synaptic Transmission
``` •Synapse: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites •Impulse reaches axon terminals •Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft •Neurotransmitters –Acetylcholine •Most common –Epinephrine –Norepinephrine –Serotonin –Dopamine –Endorphins ```
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The Reflex Arc
``` •Knee-jerk reflex •Maintain homeostasis –Heartbeat/breathing rates –Digestion –Coughing –Sneezing –Swallowing –Vomiting ```
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Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` •White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS •Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain ```
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Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` •White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS •Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain •Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS •Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS •Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS •Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS •Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord ```
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White matter
•White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS
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Gray matter
•Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
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Nerve
•Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS
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Ganglia
•Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS
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Tract
•Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS
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Nucleus
•Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS
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Horns
•Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord
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The Spinal Cord Introduction
``` •Continuation of medulla oblongata •31 segments each with a pair of spinal nerves •Protected by meninges –Dura mater –Arachnoid –Pia mater ```
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Functions of the Spinal Cord
``` •Conveys sensory impulses to the brain •Integrates reflexes •Spinal nerves connect at roots –Dorsal root: sensory –Ventral root: motor ```
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The Spinal Nerves
•All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots •Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers •Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae •Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord –Cervical: 8 pairs –Thoracic: 12 pairs –Lumbar: 5 pairs –Sacral: 5 pairs –Coccygeal: 1 pair
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The Nervous SystemThe Brain, Cranial Nerves, Autonomic Nervous System, and the Special Senses Introduction
•Brain is divided into four main parts –Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli –Diencephalon: controls homeostasis –Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions –Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance
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Brainstem
–Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli
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Diencephalon
–Diencephalon: controls homeostasis
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Cerebrum
–Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions
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Cerebellum
–Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance
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•Brain is divided into four main parts
–Brainstem: –Diencephalon: –Cerebrum: –Cerebellum:
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The Principal Parts of the Brain
``` •Main parts: brainstem, diencephalon, cerebrum, and cerebellum •Protection –Cranial bones –Meninges –Cerebrospinal fluid •Ventricles –Interventricular foramen ```
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•Main parts of the brain
•Main parts: 1. brainstem, 2. diencephalon, 3. cerebrum, 4. and cerebellum
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Protection for the brain
Protection –Cranial bones –Meninges –Cerebrospinal fluid
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Ventricles of the brain
Interventricular foramen
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The Anatomy and Functions of the Brainstem
* Medulla oblongata * Pons varolii * Midbrain
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Medulla oblongata
``` •Medulla oblongata –Ascending and descending tracts –Connect spinal cord with the brain –Some tracts cross over in medulla –Reticular formation: controls consciousness –Reflex centers ```
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•Pons varolii
•Pons varolii –Connects spinal cord with brain –Connects parts of brain with each other –Helps control breathing
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•Midbrain
•Midbrain –Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord –Dorsal tectum: reflex center –Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli) –Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)
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The Anatomy and Functions of the Diencephalon
•Optic tracts •Mamillary bodies: memory and emotional responses •Thalamus –Relay station for sensory impulses –Interpretation center for pain, temperature, and touch •Epithalamus: contains pineal gland •Hypothalamus: homeostasis –Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system –Receives sensory impulses from internal organs –Controls pituitary gland and links endocrine and nervous systems
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The Cerebrum: Structure and Function
•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface •Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres •Gyri: folds •Sulci: grooves •Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres •Surface of the cortex –Motor areas control muscular movements –Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses –Association areas process emotions and intellect •Cerebral hemispheres –Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation –Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature –Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment –Occipital lobe: vision
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•Cerebral cortex
•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
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•Longitudinal fissure
•Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres
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•Gyri:
•Gyri: folds
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Sulci:
•Sulci: grooves
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•Corpus callosum
•Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
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•Surface of the cortex
•Surface of the cortex –Motor areas control muscular movements –Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses –Association areas process emotions and intellect
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•Cerebral hemispheres
•Cerebral hemispheres –Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation –Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature –Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment –Occipital lobe: vision
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The Cerebellum: Structure and Function
``` •Butterfly-shaped •Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis •Functions –Coordinating muscular movements –Maintaining posture –Maintaining balance ```
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The Autonomic Nervous System
•Subdivision of efferent PNS•Functions without conscious effort •Regulates functions of internal organs •Assists in maintaining homeostasis •Helps deal with emergency situations •Sympathetic –Energy and stressful situations–Increases heartbeat and breathing rates –Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and norepinephrine •Parasympathetic –Restores body to nonstressful state –Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine –Stimulates digestion, urination, and defecation
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The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
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* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
116
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
117
•(I) Olfactory
•(I) Olfactory: smell
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•(II) Optic:
•(II) Optic: sight
119
•(III) Oculomotor:
•(III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
120
•(IV) Trochlear:
•(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
121
•(V) Trigeminal:
•(V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
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•(VI) Abducens:
•(VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
123
•(VII) Facial:
•(VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
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•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear:
•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
125
•(IX) Glossopharyngeal:
•(IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
126
•(X) Vagus:
•(X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
127
•(XI) Accessory:
•(XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
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•(XII) Hypoglossal:
•(XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
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The Special Senses
1. The Sense of Smell 2. The Sense of Taste 3. The Sense of Sight 4. The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
130
The Sense of Smell
* Molecules in air dissolve in nasal mucus * Bipolar sensory neurons transfer chemical impulse * Olfactory bulbs receive impulse * Impulse sent to olfactory cortex * Odor variety dependent on brain interpretation
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The Sense of Taste
* Taste buds on tongue, palate, and pharynx * Taste bud cell types–Exterior capsule: epithelial cells–Interior: taste cells * Taste depends on chemicals dissolved in saliva * Taste influenced by olfactory sensations
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The Sense of Sight
``` •Eyes protected by eyelids and eyelashes •Tears –Lubricate the eyes –Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme –Contain salt and gamma globulin ```
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The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
•Outer ear –Auricle: external, visible, flexible part –External auditory meatus •Lined with hair and ceruminous glands –Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound •Middle ear –Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes –Openings: oval and round windows –Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure •Inner ear –Cochlea: hearing –Equilibrium•Static: vestibule •Kinetic: semicircular canals
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•Outer ear
•Outer ear –Auricle: external, visible, flexible part –External auditory meatus •Lined with hair and ceruminous glands –Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound
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•Middle ear
•Middle ear –Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes –Openings: oval and round windows –Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure
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•Inner ear
•Inner ear –Cochlea: hearing –Equilibrium•Static: vestibule •Kinetic: semicircular canals
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•Molecules in air dissolve where?
in nasal mucus
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•Bipolar sensory neurons transfer what?
chemical impulse
139
•Olfactory bulbs receive what?
impulse
140
•Impulse sent where?
to olfactory cortex
141
•Odor variety dependent on what?
brain interpretation
142
•Taste buds reside on?
on tongue, palate, and pharynx
143
•Taste bud cell types
Exterior capsule: epithelial cells | –Interior: taste cells
144
•Taste depends on what?
chemicals dissolved in saliva
145
•Taste influenced by what?
by olfactory sensations
146
•Eyes protected by what?
eyelids and eyelashes
147
•Tears
–Lubricate the eyes –Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme –Contain salt and gamma globulin
148
The Endocrine System Introduction
•Maintains internal environment (homeostasis) •Hypothalamus: sends chemical signals to pituitary •Endocrine glands –Ductless –Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream
149
The Functions of Hormones
•Control cellular respiration, growth, and reproduction •Control body fluids and electrolyte balance •Control secretion of other hormones •Control behavior patterns •Regulate reproductive cycles, growth, and development •Chemical control functions as negative feedback loop –Thermostat turns furnace on when temperature falls below set point •Hormones function similarly
150
The Classification of Hormones
``` •Modified amino acids –Epinephrine, oxytocin•Proteins –Insulin, growth hormones •Steroid –Cortisol, estrogen ```
151
The Hypothalamus of the Brain
•Controls secretions of the pituitary gland •Nerve cells produce chemical signals –Releasing hormones –Releasing inhibitory hormones –Controlled by negative feedback from endocrine system
152
The Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
153
The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Growth hormone (GH): cell metabolism and growth –Decreased production •Dwarfism: childhood –Increased production •Gigantism: childhood •Acromegaly: post puberty –Controlled by two releasing hormones from hypothalamus •Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates thyroid •Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex •Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates melanocytes •Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) –Females •Stimulates ovarian follicle development –Males •Stimulates sperm cell production •Luteinizing hormone (LH) –Females•Stimulates ovulation and progesterone production –Males •Testosterone production •Lactogenic hormone (prolactin): stimulates milk production in females –May cause decrease in male sex hormones
154
The Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Hormones
•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) –Increased water reabsorption in kidney tubules –Deficiency results in diabetes insipidus –Regulated through osmoreceptors •Dehydration causes water conservation •Oxytocin –Contraction of uterine smooth muscles –Constriction of mammary gland cells (lactation) –Given after childbirth to constrict blood vessels to minimize risk of hemorrhage
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The Thyroid Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
``` •Located below larynx on either side of trachea •Requires iodine •Hormones –Thyroxine (T4): metabolism –Triiodothyronine (T3): metabolism –Calcitonin: regulation of calcium and phosphate concentration •Hypothyroidism –Cretinism –Lowered metabolic rate –Myxedema •Hyperthyroidism –Elevated metabolism –Graves’ disease •Exophthalmia ```
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The Parathyroid Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Located within the posterior thyroid gland•Chief cells secrete parathormone (PTH) •PTH stimulates bone cell release of calcium and phosphate •Hyperparathyroidism –Breakdown of bone matrix •Hypoparathyroidism –Low calcium level in blood
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The Adrenal Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Located on top of each kidney •Adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine •Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, androgens •Disorders –Addison’s disease: lack of adrenal cortex hormones –Cushing’s syndrome: too much adrenal cortex hormones
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The Pancreas, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Islets of Langerhans•Beta cells: insulin production •Alpha cells: glucagon production •Blood glucose levels regulated by negative feedback •Disorders –Low blood glucose: acidosis –High blood glucose: excess kidney production, dehydration –Diabetes mellitus: insufficient insulin production
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The Testes and the Ovaries
* Testes: testosterone–Development of male reproduction structures–Development of male sex characteristics * Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone–Development of female reproductive organs–Development of female sex characteristics–Control menstrual cycle
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The Thymus Gland and Its Hormone
* Located behind the sternum * Secretes thymosin * Important for T cell production * Thymus shrinks as we age
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The Pineal Gland and Its Hormone
``` •Located in the brain near the thalamus •Melatonin –Inhibits reproductive functions –Regulates body rhythms •Serotonin: neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor –Stimulates smooth muscle contractions ```
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the semitendinosus has
a really long tendon
163
rectus means
straight up and down
164
gracilis is
the most medial muscle
165
the tibia is on the
big toe side
166
the fibula is on the
little toe side
167
the fibula is also known as
peroneus longus
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anterior leg muscle=
extends foot/toes
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posterior leg muscles=
flexes foot/toes
170
hallucis=
big toe
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the big toe is medial or lateral
medial
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little toe os medial or lateral
lateral
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ab - ductor
away from midline
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ad- ductor
towards the midline
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interossei
in between bones
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flaccid
limp
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trophic
growth
178
hyper
alot
179
atrophy
no growth
180
myo =
muscle
181
myalgia ==
pain
182
my =
muscle
183
The Nervous System | Introduction, Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Control center and communication network Directs functions of body’s organs and systems Interprets external environment Determines reaction to change Homeostasis: balanced internal environment Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Organization of nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)- BRAIN and SPINAL CORD Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- NERVES AFFERENT peripheral system (Sensory neurons) EFFERENT peripheral system (motor neurons) Somatic- conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to skeletal muscle Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue, & the glands Sympathetic (SANS): Stimulates & speeds up metabolic actions ‘Fight or Flight’ Response (i.e. heart rate & sweating) Parasympathetic (PANS): Slows down metabolic actions: Stimulate digestion, urination, and defecation: “Rest & Digestion” Response
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Classification of Nerve Cells
Provide unique functions Sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling, muscle activity, regulating glandular secretions Support, protect, & nourish the neurons Maintains homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes it
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Neuroglia Cells (Support Cells)
**60% of ALL Brain Cells! Astrocytes: support, connection, blood brain barrier Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation in central nervous system (CNS) Schwann: myelin sheath formation in peripheral nervous system (PNS) Microglial: phagocytosis Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain
187
The Structure of a Neuron
``` Cell body: Control Center Dendrites: receptive areas Axon: extension of cell body Schwann cells- myelinated portions Nodes of Ranvier- unmyelinated portions Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common! Most MOTOR neurons Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon Most INTERNEURONS neurons Unipolar: one process extending from cell body Most SENSORY neurons ```
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The Structure of a Neuron 3
Receptors: detect environmental stimuli Sensory (afferent) neurons: Receive stimulus impulse from receptor site Carry impulses to the brain Internuncial (Interneurons): transmit impulse for interpretation and processing Carry impulses between neurons Motor (efferent) neurons: React to the stimulus Carry impulses from the brain to “effector” organs
189
The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse
``` Concentration of electrolytes: Na+ (sodium) higher on outside K+ (calcium) higher on inside Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative Action (Electrical) Potential: rush of Na+ inside cell AKA “Depolarization” Repolarization: K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance change in charges ```
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The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse- Depolarization : Repolarization
Depolarization: Na+ rush inside cell Repolarization: K+ rush out to restore balance Depolarization: Repolarization moves in ONE direction
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The Synaptic Transmission
SYNAPSE: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites Impulse reaches axon terminals Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft ``` Major Neurotransmitters (NTs): Acetylcholine Most common primary NT of the PANS Epinephrine Norepinephrine primary NT of the SANS Serotonin Dopamine Endorphins ```
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The Reflex Arc
``` Involuntary reaction to external stimulus i.e. Knee-jerk reflex Homeostasis maintenance Examples: Heartbeat/breathing rates Digestion Coughing Sneezing Swallowing Vomiting Involuntary reaction to external stimulus ```
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Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` White matter Groups of myelinated axons Forms nerve tracts in CNS Gray matter Nerve cell bodies and dendrites Unmyelinated axon bundles Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain Horns: gray matter in spinal cord ``` Neural tissue consists of the primary components (axon, cell body, & dendrites) of a neuron: Nerve: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the PNS Tract: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the CNS Ganglia: neuron cell bodies inside the PNS Nucleus: neuron cell bodies and dendrites inside the CNS
194
The Spinal Cord’s Anatomy
Continuation of the brain’s medulla oblongata 31 segments; each has a pair of spinal nerves Protected by meninges: Dura mater (“Tough mother”)- outermost layer Arachnoid (“Web”)- middle layer Pia mater (“Delicate mother”)- innermost layer
195
Functions of the Spinal Cord
``` Conveys sensory impulses to the brain Integrates reflexes Spinal nerves connect at roots Dorsal (posterior) root: sensory Ventral (anterior) root: motor ```
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The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy
All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae
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The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy
``` Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord Cervical: 8 pairs Thoracic: 12 pairs Lumbar: 5 pairs Sacral: 5 pairs Coccygeal: 1 pair ```
198
Drugs that Act on the CNS: Depressants
Valium Low Doses: Relieves tension High Doses: Drowsiness, Sedation, and Loss of any pain sensations Opiates (i.e. Codeine and Heroin) Sedatives and Analgesics; Euphoria Overuse: coma, convulsions, and respiratory problems that could lead to death Marijuana- from hemp plant; produces Euphoria Hashish- more potent cousin of marijuana (come from different part of hemp plant) produces Euphoria AND alters perception of time and space. Overuse: Hallucinations, Respiratory Problems
199
Drugs that Act on the CNS: Stimulants
``` Cocaine Euphoria (quick) Overuse: Changes in personality, seizures, and death (from stroke or abnormal rhythms of the heart) LSD Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses ``` Amphetamines- Over-stimulate postsynaptic neurons: Euphoria, Muscle spasms, restlessness, rapid heartbeat, & hypertension Overuse: Death (from respiratory or heart failure)
200
Drugs that Act on the CNS: Hallucinogens
LSD Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses A Stimulant
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Drugs that Act on the CNS: Anabolic Steroids
``` Act like the male sex hormones Cause skeletal muscle cells to increase in size Overuse: negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus of the brain and the pituitary gland In sex hormones  In testes size & sterility Liver Problems Heart Disease Anger ```
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Afferent peripheral system (sensory neurons)
carries info to the brain
203
efferent peripheral system (motor neurons)
carry info away from the brain
204
Microglial: phagocytosis
(swallowing of foreign agents)
205
The Structure of a Neuron 2
Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common! Most MOTOR neurons Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon Most INTERNEURONS neurons Unipolar: one process extending from cell body Most SENSORY neurons
206
``` C-ome L-ets G-et S-un B-urned ```
``` statum corneum- protection keritinized cells stratum lucidum- clear stratum germanium statum spnosom statum basale - where new cells are made ```
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synarthrosis
``` don't move made of har cartilage fixed fibrocartilage syndesmosis (ligament) ```
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amphiarthrosis
slightly moveable fibrocartilage hyaline cartilage
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diarthrosis (synovial)
freely moving | hyaline
210
6 synovial joints
1. ball and socket 2. pivot 3. hinge 4. saddle 5 condyloid 6 gliding
211
main Parts of the Brain
``` MAIN PARTS Brainstem Diencephalon Cerebrum Cerebellum ```
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protection parts of the brain
PROTECTION Cranial bones Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid
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Ventricles of the brain
VENTRICLES 4 Ventricles Interventricular foramen
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Brain stem parts
Midbrain Pons Medulla
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parts of the Diencephalon
Diencephalon Thalamus Hypothalamus
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The Principal Parts of the Brain:
PROTECTION
``` PROTECTION Cranial bones Meninges Epidural Space Dura Mater Subdural Space Arachnoid Mater Subarachnoid Space Pia Mater Cerebrolspinal fluid (CSF) Inside the subrachnoid space ```
217
The Principal Parts of the Brain:
VENTRICLES
(Sagittal Cross Sectional View)
VENTRICLES- Spaces where CSF is produced and circulated 4 Ventricles Interventricular foramen- connects the Lateral Ventricles with the 3rd Ventricle Cerebral Aqueduct- connects the 3rd & 4th Ventricles
218
Midbrain
Midbrain Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord Dorsal tectum: reflex center Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli) Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)
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Pons varolii
Pons varolii Connects spinal cord with brain Connects parts of brain with each other Helps control breathing
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Medulla oblongata
``` Medulla oblongata Ascending and descending tracts Connect spinal cord with the brain Some tracts cross over in medulla Reticular formation: controls consciousness Reflex centers ```
221
Diencephalon:
``` Diencephalon: Optic Tracts Mammillary bodies Thalamus Epithalamus Houses Pineal gland Hypothalamus Optic tracts: Visual Relay System Mammillary bodies: Memory and emotional responses Thalamus Relay station for sensory impulses Interpretation center for pain, temperature and touch Epithalamus: contains Pineal gland Hypothalamus: ```
222
Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus: Homeostasis Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system Receives sensory impulses from internal organs Controls the Pituitary gland (linked via the Infundibulum) and links endocrine and nervous systems
223
The Cerebrum Structure and Function
Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres Gyri: folds Sulci: grooves Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
224
Cerebral cortex:
Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
225
Longitudinal fissure:
Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres
226
Gyri:
Gyri: folds
227
Sulci:
Sulci: grooves
228
Corpus callosum:
Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
229
Surface of the cortex
Motor areas control muscular movements Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses Association areas process emotions and intellect
230
Cerebral hemispheres
``` Cerebral hemispheres Frontal lobe: Parietal lobe: Temporal lobe: Occipital lobe: ```
231
Frontal lobe:
Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation
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Parietal lobe:
Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature
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Temporal lobe:
Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment
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Occipital lobe:
Occipital lobe: vision
235
The Cerebellum: Structure
Butterfly-shaped | Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis
236
The Cerebellum: Function
Reflex center in coordinating complex skeletal muscular movements Maintaining posture Maintaining balance
237
The Autonomic Nervous System
``` Subdivision of efferent PNS Functions without conscious effort Regulates functions of internal organs Assists in maintaining homeostasis Helps deal with emergency situations ```
238
The Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic
Sympathetic “ Fight or Flight” Response Energy and stressful situations Increases heartbeat and breathing rates Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine
239
The Autonomic Nervous System: Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic “ Rest & Digest” Response Restores body to nonstressful state Stimulates digestion, urination and defecation Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
240
The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions (cont’d.)
``` (I) Olfactory: smell (II) Optic: sight (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball constriction of pupil (via parasympathetic nervous system) (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in) ```
241
(I) Olfactory:
(I) Olfactory: smell
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(II) Optic:
(II) Optic: sight
243
(III) Oculomotor:
(III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball constriction of pupil (via parasympathetic nervous system)
244
(IV) Trochlear:
(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in)
Anatomy 141
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