Issues and debates

Question 1

Gender bias in research

Answer 1

Use of standardised procedures in research studies
Women and men might respond differently to research studies.
Women and men might be treated differently by researchers.
Could create artificial differences or make real ones.

Question 2

Dissemination of research results

Answer 2

Publishing bias towards positive results
Research finding sex differences are more likely to get published than that which does not
Exaggerated extent of sex differences
More men are published than women

Question 3

Universality and bias

Answer 3

Underlying characteristic of human beings which is capable of being applied to us all.
Psychology attempts to conduct research that is objective and value free.
However, psychologists possess beliefs and values that are influenced by social and historical contexts they live in.
This may influence their research, findings and conclusions.
This can undermine the universality of the research (being applied to all human beings).

Question 4

Examples of sex bias

Answer 4

Biomedical theories of abnormality:
1. Abnormal behaviours explained in terms of neurochemical /hormonal processes
2. Higher prevalence of depression in females explained in hormonal terms, not social/environmental e.g. violence, unpaid labour, discrimination

Question 5

Alpha bias

Answer 5

When the differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either to heighten the value of women or devalue them.
These differences are presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable.

Question 6

Examples of alpha bias(1) against women

Answer 6

Freud: Reflecting the culture in which he lived, men were more powerful and more educated and regarded as superior to women. Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity - he exaggerated the difference between males and females.
Josselson (1988) points out in this theory , women are seen as being inferior to men as they are jealous of men’s penises and because they cannot undergo the same Oedipus conflict as boys do. Because the superego develops from the conflict, women must therefore be morally inferior, because they have a weaker identification with their mother.

Question 7

Alpha bias example(2) against women

Answer 7

Wilson (1975)- Sociobiological theory of relationship formation focuses on survival efficiency.
It believes it is in a male’s interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible, as this will guarantee that his genes will be passed down through generations.
For the female, her best chance is to ensure a healthy survival of their offspring, which would guarantee that her genes are passed on.
Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while women who engage in similar activity are seen to be going against their nature.

Question 8

Beta bias

Answer 8

When differences between the two sets are ignored or minimised or underestimated.
Exaggerating the similarity between men and women.
This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and it is then assumed the research findings apply equally to both sexes, without additional validation.

Question 9

Beta bias example

Answer 9

Kohlberg (1973):
His stage theory of moral development was based entirely of a longitudinal study of a sample of American men.
Though he argued his findings were universal, and represented the moral reasoning of both men and women.
Claimed women generally reached lower levels of development (androcentrism)

Question 10

Androcentrism (institutional sexism)

Answer 10

Centred or focused on men, often to the neglect of exclusion of women.
This is a consequence of beta bias.
If our understanding of normal behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all male samples, then behaviour that deviates from this is seen as abnormal by comparison.
Female behaviour is misunderstood and underrepresented.

Question 11

Gynocentrism

Answer 11

A study conducted only on females but generalised also to males

Question 12

Gilligen and moral development (alpha bias one against men)

Answer 12

Highlighted bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work
Suggested women make moral decisions in a different way to men (care ethic vs justice ethic)
Arguably also (alpha) based, as males and females’ moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests

Question 13

Alpha bias(example two against men)

Answer 13

Karen Horney stated it was wrong
to think females were envious of men’s attributes, but they were jealous of their social class.
She coined the term ‘womb envy’, in which males are envious of females’ ability to have children and compensated for that by achieving in other domains.

Question 14

Implications of gender bias(negative evaluation)

Answer 14

Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
It may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities both in the workplace and society.
Tavris (1993)- it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal.
It may therefore have lasting and damaging consequences for real women.

Question 15

Institutional sexism (negative evaluation)

Answer 15

Lack of women at senior level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.
Lab experiments have female participants and male researchers.
Nicholson (1995)- this creates an inequitable relationship with male researchers where women could be labelled.
Denmark et al(1988)- psychologically is institutionally sexist and creates bias in theory and research.

Question 16

Essentialism (negative evaluation)

Answer 16

Many sex differences are based on the essentialist perspective that sex differences are fixed and enduring.
These can often be politically motivated facts that create double standards.

Question 17

Reflexivity - supporting evaluation

Answer 17

Modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work.
Rather than see bias as a problem, they embrace it and see it as a critical aspect of the research process.
Dambrin and Lambert (2008)- reflected on their own gender related experiences in their research.
Reflexivity is an important development in psychology and has led to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in research.

Question 18

Feminist psychology - supporting evaluation

Answer 18

Worrell (192) stated that a number of criteria should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias:
Women should be studied in real life context
They should genuinely participate in research
They should not be objects of study
Diversity within groups of women should be examined as opposed to differences between men and women
Both men and women should be tested in research

Question 19

Feminist perspective - addressing gender bias

Answer 19

Re-examining the facts about gender
View of women as normal humans, not deficient men
Skepticism towards biological determinism
Research agenda focusing on women’s concerns
A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women