Learning

Question 1

The concept of learning is

Answer 1

refers to any enduring change in the way an organise responds based on its experience.

Question 2

Learning cannot be _______ directly rather it is inferred from _____ that is observed.

Answer 2

observed, behaviour

Question 3

Learning is _____, and modifiable by the _____ and _____

Answer 3

environment and experience

Question 4

The reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentations of the stimulus is know as ______, whereas _____ is the reappearance of the response to the initial stimuli - such as a sudden noise causes an orienting response (startle)

Answer 4

Habituation, dishabituation

Question 5

Fl _____ A type of learning studied by behaviourists. Classical conditioning.

Answer 5

Conditioning

Question 6

Associative learning means that there is an association between one _____ event with another in a _____, so that the first event becomes a _____ for the second, or the first event produces a response from the organism

Answer 6

external, sequence, signal

Question 7

The conditions under which one thought becomes connected, or associated with each other to account for learning and memory is known as _____ law of continuity

Answer 7

Aristotle’s

Question 8

Aristotle’s law of _______ proposes that two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time

Answer 8

continuity

Question 9

The Law of similarity states that objects that _____ each other are likely to become _____

Answer 9

resemble, associated.

Question 10

_____ conditioning refers to learning in which an environmental stimulus produces a response in an organism. i.e. clock at 5pm makes you hungry for dinner, Pavlov’s dogs.

Answer 10

Classical conditioning

• occurs when we learn to identify a relationship between two different stimuli

Question 11

Learning is made up of two types of conditioning they are

Answer 11

classical and

operant conditioning

Question 12

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

The learning of a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli is know as _______ conditioning

Answer 12

Classical conditioning

Question 13

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

In classical conditioning we learn that a _____ predicts a certain event and we _____ accordingly.

Answer 13

stimulus, respond

Question 14

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

In classical conditioning, all responses are reflexes or _____ responses that are elicited by _____ stimuli.

Answer 14

autonomic, environmental

Question 15

The are two forms of associative learning are and operant conditioning.

Answer 15

classical - a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a response on its own

operant - a certain behavior is either reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the behavior will happen again

Question 16

Classical conditioning can ONLY apply to _____ and ____ response

Answer 16

reflexes, autonomic

Question 17

Classical conditioning

Conditioned responses

Answer 17

are learned reflexed that can both be adaptive and maladaptive responses

Question 18

Classical conditioning

taste aversions or immune responses are _____ responses

Answer 18

Conditioned

Question 19

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ _____ - Once an organism has learned to associate a _____ stimulus with a _____ response, it may respond to ____ that resemble the _____ stimuli with a similar response.

Answer 19

Stimulus generalisation

Question 20

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ _____ is the learned tendency to respond to a very restricted range of stimuli or to only the one used during training.

Answer 20

Stimulus discrimination

Question 21

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ occurs when a CR is weakened by the presentation of the CS without the UCS, that is, the response is extinguished.

Answer 21

Extinction

Question 22

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Spontaneous recovery is the short lived return of a previously extinguished ______ _____

Answer 22

Conditioned response

(CR)

Question 23

Conditioning is a form of _____

Answer 23

learning

Question 24

Classical conditioning.

An unconditioned reflex is

Answer 24

a reflex that occurs naturally

Question 25

Classical conditioning. An _____ _____ that produces the response in an unconditioned reflex.

Answer 25

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Question 26

Classical conditioning. An _____ stimulus activates a reflexive response without any _____ having taken place thus the reflex is ______, or _____.

Answer 26

unconditioned, learning, unlearned, unconditioned

Question 27

Classical conditioning. An _____ _____ is a response that does not have to be learnt.

Answer 27

unconditioned response (UCR)

Question 28

Classical conditioning. A conditioned response (CR) is a response that has been _____

Answer 28

learned

Question 29

Classical conditioning. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that through learning, has come to evoke a _____ _____

Answer 29

conditioned response (CR).

Question 30

Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition is known as the initial stage of learning where a CR becomes associated with the CS or the process of acquiring a new _____ between stimuli (food and bell)

Answer 30

association

Question 31

Classical conditioning _____ occurs when a conditioned response CR is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimulus CS, without the US unconditioned stimulus

Answer 31

Extinction

Question 32

Classical conditioning. The time between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is known as

Answer 32

Interstimulus interval

Question 33

Classical conditioning. Factors: - the interstimulus interval (the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS) - the individual's learning history and - prepared learning.

Answer 33

Factors that influence classical conditioning

Question 34

Classical conditioning. _____ _____ occurs when a stimulus learns to only respond to a restricted range of stimuli, or to only the one used during training.

Answer 34

Stimulus discrimination

Question 35

Classical conditioning. Blocking refers to

Answer 35

the failure of the stimulus to elicit a CR response when paired with another stimulus that already elicits a response

Question 36

When initial exposure to the neutrals stimulus, without a UCS, slows the process of later learning the CS-UCS association and developing a CR.

Answer 36

Latent inhibition

Question 37

An electrical measure of the amount of sweat on the skin, associated with arousal or anxiety

Answer 37

galvanic skin response (GSR)

Question 38

____ in classical conditioning refers to the process by which a ______ response is weakened by the presentation of the _____ stimuli without the ____ stimuli.

Answer 38

Extinction, conditioned, conditioned, unconditioned.

Question 39

Conditioned taste aversion is where

Answer 39

a particular flavour is followed by an illness experience, and as a result that particular flavour is not consumed in the future.

Question 40

taste aversions can happen

Answer 40

after only one trial

Question 41

Conditioned emotional response example

Answer 41

little Albert The fear initially associated with the loud noise was now elicited by the previously neutral stimulus, the white rat.

Question 42

Name the Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 42

Acquisition Extinction Stimulus generalisation Stimulus discrimination

Question 43

The process of acquiring a new association between stimuli (food & bell)

Answer 43

Acquisition

Question 44

Extinctionis the

Answer 44

The weakening of a conditioned response

Question 45

Stimulus generalisation when

Answer 45

similar stimuli producing similar reactions

Question 46

Stimulus discrimination is the

Answer 46

response to stimuli has a restricted range

Question 47

_____ recovery – conditioned response returns after being extinguished

Answer 47

Spontaneous

Question 48

The _____ relationship between the CS and UCS is crucial

Answer 48

temporal

Question 49

There are 3 types of conditioning.

Answer 49

Forward conditioning Simultaneous conditioning Backward conditioning

Question 50

when the onset of the CS precedes the UCS.

Answer 50

Forward conditioning

Question 51

Simultaneous conditioning

Answer 51

when the CS and UCS are presented at the same time, and

Question 52

when the CS is presented after the UCS.

Answer 52

Backward conditioning

Question 53

Forward conditioning has been the most extensively studied by Pavlov and most likely to lead to learning. Whereas, simultaneous conditioning produces moderate effectiveness for learning and backward conditioning is the least effective.

Answer 53

.

Question 54

Operant conditioning _____ conditioning is learning a new association between _____ and its consequences, as opposed to conditioning in which an association is learned between two _____

Answer 54

Operant, behaviour, stimuli

Question 55

Operant conditioning is

Answer 55

The learning of a new association between behaviour and its consequences.

Question 56

Operant conditioning is learning through _____ and _____.

Answer 56

reinforcement, punishment

Question 57

_____ (responses) is voluntary and emitted not elicited.

Answer 57

Behaviour

Question 58

Behaviour is modified according to its _____

Answer 58

consequences.

Question 59

Operant conditioning Thorndike's Law of _____: States that an animal's tendency to produce a behaviour depends on that behaviour's effect on the environment. Behaviour is controlled by consequences.

Answer 59

Effect - Behaviours that result in positive consequences will be more likely in the future. - Behaviours that result in negative consequences will be less likely in the future

Question 60

Operant conditioning Operants operate on the _____ to bring about some change that leads to a reward. And reward is _____ for behaviour reinforcement.

Answer 60

environment, critical

Question 61

Operant conditioning _._ _____ argued that reactions were voluntary, and labelled these instrumental responses as operants.

Answer 61

B.F. Skinner

Question 62

Operant conditioning A reinforcing stimulus, or reinforcer, that strengthens or increases the probability of the response that follows

Answer 62

Reinforcement

Question 63

Operant conditioning _____ occurs when the stimulus or event that follows a response weakens it, or makes it less likely to recur. Any aversive (unpleasant) stimulus or event can be a punisher

Answer 63

Punishment

Question 64

Operant conditioning _____ increases the likelihood of behaviour and _____ decreases the likelihood of behaviour.

Answer 64

reinforcement, punishment

Question 65

Operant conditioning _____ _____ is The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., “Well done”

Answer 65

Positive reinforcement - an environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response, which makes the response more likely to recur.

Question 66

Operant conditioning _____ _____ is The removal of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour which makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., nagging, man wearing wedding ring)

Answer 66

Negative Reinforcement

Question 67

Operant conditioning _____ _____ increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by a desired stimulus or reinforcer

Answer 67

Positive reinforcement

Question 68

Operant conditioning _____ reinforcement increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus.

Answer 68

Negative reinforcement

Question 69

Operant conditioning Positive Punishment

Answer 69

The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., speeding fine.

Question 70

Operant conditioning The removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., removal of TV watching time.

Answer 70

Negative Punishment

Question 71

Operant conditioning If an adverse stimulus follows a CR and decreases the frequency of that response it is called a _____

Answer 71

punisher

Question 72

Operant conditioning When a behaviour is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus, thisis called positive _____

Answer 72

punishment.

Question 73

Operant conditioning When a behaviour is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimuli which reduces the likelihood of the reoccurrence of behaviour, this is called _____ punishment

Answer 73

negative

Question 74

Operant conditioning Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished. Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action Operant conditioning and punishment . Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement) Using punishment when the teacher is angry Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.

Answer 74

Are all issues of punishment

Question 75

Operant conditioning Reinforcement always increases the probability that a response will recur. In contrast, _____ decreases the probability of a response, through either exposure to an aversive event following the behaviour (positive punishment) or losing or failing to obtain reinforcement previously associated with behaviour (negative punishment). Punishment is commonplace in human affairs but is frequently applied in ways that render it ineffective.

Answer 75

Punishment

Question 76

Principle of Operant Conditioning _____: a procedure in which a complex behaviour is trained/taught by reinforcing close and closer approximations of the desired response - e.g. teaching a child to tie shoelaces

Answer 76

Shaping

Question 77

Issues of punishment

Answer 77

Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished. Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action and punishment . Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement) Using punishment when the teacher is angry Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.

Question 78

There are 3 schedules of reinforcement

Answer 78

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules | Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Question 79

schedules of reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement Schedules -

Answer 79

Reinforcer is obtained after every response

Question 80

schedules of reinforcement Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules - Reinforcer is not obtained for every response

Answer 80

Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Variable Interval

Question 81

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules _____ Ratio: - An organism receives reinforcement at a fixed rate according to the the number of operant responses emitted - e.g. Reinforced every ___ response

Answer 81

Fixed, 9th

Question 82

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules _____ Ratio: receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before each reinforcement is unpredictable - e.g. - On average, reinforced _____ every ninth response

Answer 82

Variable, after

Question 83

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules _____ Interval: Reinforced after specific time period has elapsed

Answer 83

Fixed

Question 84

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules _____ Interval: Reinforced after an average time period has elapsed

Answer 84

Variable

Question 85

_____ _____ is learning by observing the behaviour of others (models).

Answer 85

Observational learning

Question 86

Imitation of a model’s behaviour depends on

Answer 86

Prestige of the model Likeability and attractiveness of the model Whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning)

Question 87

Cognitive-social theory incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds two additional features:

Answer 87

a focus on cognition and on social learning.

Question 88

Locus of control:

Answer 88

The expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life

Question 89

Internal locus:

Answer 89

Believe that their actions determine their fate

Question 90

External locus:

Answer 90

Believe that their lives are governed by forces

Question 91

Learned helplessness

Answer 91

The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the motivational and learning deficits that accrue from it.

Question 92

Maier and Seligman claimed that there are three components of learned helplessness.

Answer 92

(1) A Motivational impairment (2) A Cognitive impairment (3) an Emotional impairment

Question 93

Components of learned helplessness. A _____ impairment means subjects become less motivated to try and control their environment,

Answer 93

Motivational

Question 94

Components of learned helplessness. A _____ impairment is a reduced ability to learn from one’s experience, learning is slower (if not totally lost)

Answer 94

Cognitive

Question 95

Components of learned helplessness. An _____ impairment is the development of emotional and physical problems (ulcers, etc).

Answer 95

Emotional

Question 96

Learned helplessness and depression: Based on Seligman's work

Answer 96

many studies have provided evidence towards the phenomenon of learned helplessness in the lab with humans suffering from depression.

Question 97

To cognitive-social theorists, _____ learning is evidence that knowledge or beliefs about the environment are crucial to the way that animals behave

Answer 97

latent -learning that has occurred but it not currently manifest in behaviour.

Question 98

_____ learning occurs when is where a person learns the consequences of an action by watching someone else's response

Answer 98

Vicarious

Question 99

Operant conditioning. There are 4 phenomena in particular that help to explain the power of operant conditioning:

Answer 99

1. schedules of reinforcement 2. discriminative stimuli (stimuli that signal to an organism that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect), 3. the behavioural context and 4. characteristics of the learner.

Question 100

_____ _____ refers to the way people make sense of bad events. - Individuals with a depressive or pessimistic explanatory style see the causes of bad events as internal, stable and global. - Expectancies such as locus of control and explanatory stye differ across cultures, since cultural belief systems offer people ready-made ways of interpreting events, and people who live in a society share common experiences (such as work and schooling) that lead to shared beliefs and expectancies.

Answer 100

Explanatory style

Question 101

Just as humans and other animals can develop phobias by forming idiosyncratic associations, they can also erroneously associate an operant and an environmental event, a phenomenon Skinner labelled _____ _____

Answer 101

superstitious behaviour