1
Q
Psychology
A
philosophy + biology
- Study of behaviour and mind
- William James- “Science of mental life, eg. feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, decision.”
2
Q
Empiricism
A
Hypotheses and theories about the nature of mind need to be confirmed or disconfirmed by observation.
- Several empirical methods permitting proper observation, descriptive methods & experimental methods
- Short history in psychology
- Opposite = Rationalism
3
Q
Monism
A
Also materialism: Mind is within brain
4
Q
Dualism
A
René Descartes
- Brain is not mind
- Res cogitates (not matter) vs res extends (matter)
- Epiphenomenalism and interactionism
5
Q
Epiphenomenalism
A
A type of dualism
- Brain activity produces mind, mind cannot influence brain
- similar to Interactionism
6
Q
Interactionism
A
A type of dualism
- Mind can influence brain and vice versa
- Majority opinion
7
Q
Materialism
A
Monism, brain = mind
8
Q
Structuralism
A
School of thought: (Wilhelm Wundt) Basic elements form the parts of more complex mental events
- Introspection
- Sensations = raw sensory content
- Perceptions = combinations of sensations
9
Q
Introspection
A
A technique requiring intensive training to analyze conscious experience into its basic elements (sensations)
- Wundt, structuralism
- Problem = No objective, independent evaluation and reproducibility is low
10
Q
Functionalism
A
School of thought: (William James) Psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, not structure
- Influenced by natural selection
- Characteristics have purpose
- How people adapt their behaviour to demand of world
- New: Mental testing, developmental patterns, education
11
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
Father of psychology
- Structuralism
- First research laboratory
12
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
School of thought: (Max Wertheimer) The whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts
- Perception of objects is subjective
- Gestalt laws: built human tendencies
- Not predicted by stimulus (opposite = behaviourism)
- 1 stimulus = multiple responses
13
Q
Behaviourism
A
School of thought: (John Watson) Prediction and control of behaviour, stimulus = response
- Purely objective, no introspection
- Biology, not experiences
- What you observe on outside
14
Q
Cognitive revolution
A
- Increase brain size, 25% energy
- Consequences: looking for food, muscle atrophy, premature birth (bigger brain, smaller pelvis to walk, plastic babies)
- cooking = more nutrition, faster digestion
- Language: cooperation strangers, innovation of social behaviour (max 150 p), increase size of society
15
Q
Psychophysiological model of mind
A
Model of mind: Explains human behaviour based on biology
- Form of reductionism
- Nervous system
Assumptions:
- Behaviour determined by structures and inherited processes
- Experience can modify behaviour by changing biology
- Aplysia slug (Kandel) w reductionism
Problem: Doesn’t explain how thoughts really work
16
Q
Psychodynamic model of mind
A
Model of mind: (Sigmund Freud) All behaviour can be explained in terms of drives or other intra-psychological forces
- Behaviour arises from drives and reflexes & attempt to solve conflicts between self & socially adapted behaviour
- Psychoanalysis
- Id, ego, superego
17
Q
Behaviourist model of mind
A
Model of mind: (Pavlov & Watson) Overt and observable behaviour is the proper level of analysis
- Tries to determine what factors control behaviour
- S-R model
- Can be controlled
- Pavlov’s experiment & little Albert
18
Q
Cognitive model of mind
A
Model of mind: Assumes that cognitions (all structure & processes that are mental) are the principal subject matter of psychology
- Philosophy, linguistics, compsci, anthro, neuroscience
- Behaviour explained by analysis information processing
- Humans create/construct reality
- Info processing account of memory models
19
Q
Humanistic model of mind
A
Model of mind: (Maslow & Rogers) Assumes that humans are neither motivated by strong deterministic biology drives or environmental factors - active beings, naturally good w free will
- Understands behaviour by detecting patterns in life histories
- World experienced by subject, not external observer
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
20
Q
Id
A
Follows the pleasure principle. Attempts to avoid pain and increase pleasure. Primal drives, basic nature (the wild animal within).
21
Q
Ego
A
Reason and self-control, tries to mediate superego and id.
22
Q
Superego
A
Morality, conscience, ideals, aspirations (your perfect self)
23
Q
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A
- Physiological: The desire for food, shelter, and clothing
- Security: The desire for job security
- Social: The desire for affiliation and acceptance
- Self-Esteem: The desire for status and position
- Self-actualization: The desire for a fulfilling life and to fulfill one’s potential
24
Q
William James
A
Founding parent: Functionalism
- Prof at Harvard
- Course: “The relations between physiology and psychology”
- Stream of consciousness
- Studied under Wilhelm
- Book - “The science of mental life”
- Inspired by functionalism, emphasis on purpose and utility
25
John Watson
Founding parent: Behaviourism
- Took over psychology department at John Hopkins
- Shifted away from philosophy toward bio
- Research on non-humans, opposed introspection (Based on private experiences therefor inaccessible to investigator)
- Redefined psychology in behaviourist manifesto
26
Sigmund Freud
Developed psychoanalysis and psychodynamic model
- Founded first major movement of clinical psychology
- Unconscious = main motor of behaviour
- Id, ego, superego
- Most of psyche is unconscious (inaccessible), preconscious (can try to make conscious) & conscious (fully aware)
- Assumes humans = evil, aggressive, driven by sexual impulses
- Psychosexual phases of development, "neurotic" behaviours & problems = trauma during phase
27
René Descartes
Person who was behind dualism
28
Abraham Maslow
Who was behind Maslow's hierarchy of needs
29
BF Skinner
- Endorsed the behaviourist manifesto
- Operant conditioning with "skinner box"
- Tested variables vs. reinforcement
30
Little Albert
- John B Watson
- Fear conditioned a small child
- Banging noise with animals
- After = child is afraid of animals and fluffy things, fear
- Generalized: Conditioned response evoked with similar stimuli
31
Social psychology
Type of psychology: The study of anything that happens in groups, more than one person
32
Attribution theory
A framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional or situational causes.
33
Dispositional/internal attribution
Whether another's behaviour is assumed to be a result of their personality traits and characteristics.
34
Situational/external attribution
Whether another's behaviour is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one's control.
35
Kelley's covariation model
An attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way
3 Things to look at before attributing:
E.g. She's late
1. Consistency: Is she always late?
2. Distinctiveness: Is she late to other classes?
3. Consensus: Are others also late?
36
Self-serving bias
Attributing one's successes to internal causes and one's failures to external causes (helps preserve self-esteem).
37
Fundamental attribution error/actor-observer bias
The tendency to attribute the behaviour of others to internal/dispositional causes and one's own behaviour to external/environmental causes.
38
False consensus effect
An overestimation regarding the extent that others share our beliefs.
39
First impression
The tendency for our initial impression that we have about other persons to be rapid and enduring.
40
Primacy effect
The initial information learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation, which is most pronounced with the initial information is negative.
41
Self-fulfilling prophecy
When expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unwittingly act in ways to bring about the behaviour (connected = confirmation bias)
42
Confirmation bias
The tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one's existing beliefs and ignore or discard information inconsistent with their beliefs.
43
Cognitive dissonance
When attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce.
44
Methods to reduce conflict
1. Change attitude- climate change doesn’t exist
2. Change behaviour- I won’t take the flight
3. Change relationship between attitude and behaviour- Rationalize, it’s already too late for climate change
45
Stereotype threat
Refers to the risk of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group.
46
Mere exposure effect
The more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased liking of that person.
47
Yerkes-dodson law
levated arousal levels can improve performance up to a certain point.
48
Conformity
```
The extent to which persons modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behaviour of the surrounding group
Depends on:
- Group size
- Ambiguity of task
- Gender
- Personality
```
49
Groupthink and why it happens
When high degrees of conformity and consistency in a group are highly valued, to the exclusion of opposing information and ideas
Why?
1. Overestimating group: Illusion of invulnerability
2. Closed mindedness
3. Pressure for uniformity
50
Rationalisation/confabulation
After the fact, false explanation for why you did something (rationalization)
- We don’t know when we explain something whether it is true or a confabulation
- Like convincing yourself — more time to confabulate, stronger attitude change
51
Choice blindness
When you don't notice when the outcome of your decision is swapped
52
Festinger study
Do a boring task, give small amount and big amount to tell next “participant” that the task was interesting (a lie).
- Group that were payed less reported after that they actually did find the thing more interesting
- People try to rationalize why, i.e. if I’m doing something I don’t believe in for a very small amount, I must have found it pretty interesting. If I’m doing something I don’t believe in, I will happily do it if I’m being payed a large amount
53
Social influence
A process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others.
54
Social norm
Prescribed behaviors that vary across context, culture, and time.
55
Individualistic society
Cultures that place emphasis on the individual rather than the group.
56
Collectivistic society
Cultures that place emphasis on the group instead of the individual.
57
Obedience
Conforming to authority, tested in Milgram experiment
58
Milgram study
Shock experiment, most people delivered the max amount of voltage because a person of authority told them to
- 15-450V
- 65% went to max
59
Bystander effect
A person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases.
60
Theories of aggression
Agression is..
- Biological: inherited, 60% genetics, amygdala
- Environment: Behaviour modelling, social learning, Bandura experiment
61
Bandura behaviour modelling and social learning
Learning to complete a task by simply copying the behaviour of another person. Learning behaviours and skills by watching others engage in those behaviours.
-
62
Theories of prosocial behaviour/altruism
Helping others without the expectation of anything in return.
- pure altruism, reciprocal altruism
- biological or psychological
63
Reciprocal altruism
Engaging in what appears to be prosocial behaviours with the expectation of getting something in return.
64
Reciprocity norm
The idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return.
65
Compliance
A type of social influence where an individual does what someone else wants them to do, following a request or suggestion.
66
Foot-in-the-door
Initial request is small so people willingly participate. Later make a larger request. (commitment)
67
Door-in-the-face
Initial request is large and rejected, so smaller request is made and accepted. (reciprocity norm)
68
Ockham's razor
Given several explanations for a phenomenon, the most simple one should be accepted
69
Reductionism and its limitations
Break things down to understand, but once you are able to describe something based on smallest components, you don’t necessarily understand it
70
Rationalism
The belief or theory that reason is the key source of knowledge.
- using reason & logical arguments suffices to find the correct answers about the nature of the mind
- Argues that observation not only is unnecessary, but potentially misleading.
Opposite = empiricism
71
Empiricism
Hypotheses and theories about the nature of mind need to be confirmed or disconfirmed by observation.
- There are methods permitting proper observation, descriptive methods as well as experimental methods.
- Nurture
72
Scientific method
1. Identify the problem
2. Gather information
3. Generate a hypothesis
4. Design and conduct experiments
5. Analyze data and formulate conclusions
6. Restart the process
73
Inductivism
Several observations are used to induce theories, which are used to deduce hypothesis, leading to more observations, eventually to arrive at laws. Example: observing sufficient white swans might lead to law that “ALL SWANS ARE WHITE”.
74
Falsificationism
(Popper’s suggestion, accepted) A statement (hypothesis) that is capable of being refuted is deduced from a theory. Tests are designed to refute the predictions (falsification), not to confirm a theory.
- If one prediction is falsified, then theory is wrong - strict testing
- Get closer and closer to the truth
75
Scientific process according to Kuhn
1. Preparadigm period: fact gathering, no science
2. Normal science: One paradigm, puzzle solving
3. Anomaly: Important insoluble problem
4. Crisis: Insecurity, contending theories
5. Revolution: Younger scientists adhere to new paradigm
76
Observer effects
Effects of observation and consequences for external validity
77
Experimenter bias
Scientists affect results, eg. rat experiment sex of scientist skewed results
78
Demand characteristics
```
The sum total of cues of the experimental situation that convey the experimental hypothesis to participants
- Person being studied is not only a passive responder, but might engage in the experiment actively, e.g., trying to solve the problem what the experiment is actually about.
- Eg 1 (Orne, 1962): subjects asked to add sheets of random numbers, then tear them up into at least 32 pieces. Over 5 h later, subjects were still doing it.
Example 2 (Milgram)
```
79
Representativeness
The bias in experiments is Anglocentric, Eurocentric, Androcentric, and, used to be Masculinist.
- Data obtained do not represent humanity in general.
- Doubtful whether obtained effects can be found in other populations
80
Artificiality
- Done in research laboratories, bizarre tasks
- Result of a reductionist approach, aimed at identifying mechanisms of cognition/behaviour.
- Unclear to what extent the observed behaviour reflects the normal operation of the brain in natural situations and under natural conditions
81
Descriptive methods
Any means to capture, record, or otherwise, describe a group. These methods are concerned with identifying 'what is' rather than 'why it is.'
- naturalistic observation
- Participant observation
- Case studies
- Surveys
82
Naturalistic observation
Observation of behaviour as it happens, without an attempt to manipulate or control the subjects' natural environment.
83
Hawthorne effect and experiment
The alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed
- Workers in the factory did better no matter what changed due to being observed
84
Reactivity
Shown in the Hawthorne effect
85
Experimenter expectancy effect and experiment
Two groups, group that was told they had a very smart rat actually performed better after training
- In reality, both rats were the same
86
Response bias
The tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in systematic ways that are otherwise inaccurate
87
Socially desirable bias
Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others.
88
Correlation and correlational studies
A measure (denoted as r) that captures the direction and strength of a relationship between variables
- Cannot detect causal relationships between variables
- Allow for predictions which can be tested in controlled experiments to search for causal relationships
89
Directionality and directionality problem
The direction of the relationship between variables can appear ambiguous.
- Causations cannot be determined, therefore it remains unclear whether a positive or negative correlation results from the increase in one or the other measured variable
90
Positive correlation
Both variables move in the same direction (e.g., the higher the level of education, the higher the salary)
91
Negative correlation
Variables have an inverse relationship, thus moving in different directions – as one variable increases, the other one decreases (e.g., the less day missed in school, the higher the GPA)
92
Zero correlation
The variables are not predictably related
93
Third variable
a basic problem of all correlational studies. The relationship between the two measured correlated variables might be dependent on a third, not measured, variable
94
Sample
A subset (or portion) of a population
95
Population
All members of a group
96
Sampling error
A sample that deviates from a true representation of a population.
97
Experimental method
Control over variables, careful measurement and establishing cause and effect relationships
- Hypothesis scientifically tested
98
Cause and effect relationship
Two variables, One impacts/causes other
99
(Experimental) hypothesis
A premise that describes what a researcher in a scientific study hopes to demonstrate if certain conditions are met
100
Independent variable
The manipulated variables
101
Dependent variable
The variables to measure the effect of the manipulations
102
Control group
A group separated from the rest of the experiment, where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results.
103
Confound/confounding variable
Other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient
104
Internal validity
Controlling for factors that might bias the outcome of an experiment so that results are only due to the independent variable
105
External validity
How well the experimenter can generalize to the population of interest is called
106
Descriptive statistics
Brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set
- Broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability
107
Frequency distribution
Skewed to the left, skewed to the right, or normally distributed
108
Central tendency
A central or typical value for a probability distribution
| - Mean, median (for skewed), or mode
109
Mode
The value that occurs most often in a dataset. In a frequency distribution, this is the category with the highest frequency.
- Rarely used to characterize a distribution
110
Median
The data point in a dataset for which half (50%) of all data points are higher in value, and half (50%) of all data are lower in value
- Useful for skewed distributions
111
Mean
The average value of a set of data, computed by adding all values and dividing their sum by the number of data points that were added up
- Useful for normal distributions
112
Normal distribution
Mode, median, mean are the same value.
| - The values are usually not identical, but very close to each other
113
Variability
Assesses how wide the scores are spread out in the distribution, how narrow or how wide the distribution is
- High value = not normally distributed
114
Standard deviation
A measure of the amount of variability in a data set
- The average distance of the data points from the mean
- Large value = data in the distribution are spread wide around the mean
- Small value = they are closely scattered around the mean
115
Nature
You are born with (i.e. genes) your behaviours (Descartes)
116
Nurture
The environment determines behaviour (Locke)
117
Interactionism
Certain basic abilities and knowledge is innate, but can be influenced by experience, which in turn can change what innate behaviours are expressed, which influences what will be experienced, and so on
- Supported strongly
118
Nativism
Knowledge of the world is mostly innate (a priori), and determines certain abilities (Descartes)
- Nature view
119
Assimilation
Baby incorporates new objects into scheme, goes along with previous ideas
120
Accommodation
New object doesn't fit the existing scheme, concepts of world are changed
121
Disequilibrium
Experience doesn't fit with existing knowledge
122
Proximate causation
Related to internal changes in an animal, such as hormones, learning, experience, etc.
- Explains “how” an animal produces a behaviour (a goal of reductionism)
123
Ultimate causation
Relates to the evolutionary causes of behaviour. Explains “why” an animal behaves as it does
124
Agricultural revolution
- 8k years ago agriculture emerged, animals domesticated
- Ownership, Instead of tribes = villages, nutrition diseases, reduced knowledge, sedentary
- minds = same, behaviour reflects this
125
Scientific revolution
Galileo, Bacon, Descartes and others developed scientific method to understand nature with the aim to control it (an old human dream, perhaps born out of our past as animal in the middle of the food chain)
126
Anthropocene
Proposed new epoch. Outcomes of scientific revolution led to a new era in Earth history, characterized by human ability to modify entire biosphere, changing climate, geology, ecosystems
127
Innate behaviours of humans
Present at birth & develop rapidly
- Smiling & laughing
- Attraction to novelty
- Moro, grasping, rooting reflex
- Crying
128
Baby scheme/kindenschema
Phylogenetically preserved behaviour, a proportion we like in animals = cute
129
Piloerection
Goosebumps due to cold, shock, fright
| -Look bigger
130
Preference for cover
Phylogenetically preserved behaviour
- Children love to build caves, little forts
- Prefer to sit with back against wall
- Sit at seats at corners and borders/edges
- Prefer higher lookouts for dwellings
131
Innate social behaviours
- Stretching out hand in primates and humans signals initiation of contact
- Pet/caress/gentle touch comes from primate allogrooming
132
Grasping reflex
Baby's tight grip, e.g. baby monkey holds onto mom to carry
133
Crying & laughing
Best tool of communication for babies
| - Seen in blind/deaf children
134
Trait
a distinguishing quality or characteristic
| - inherited/learned
135
Twin studies on intelligence
Study to determine which traits inherited, which learned
- monozygotic resemble in intelligence whether raised together or not
- Dizygotic much less, however more similar than random individuals
136
Heritability
Estimates for intelligence, chances of it being passed on
137
Dizygotic twins
Also known as "fraternal" twins or non-identical twins. In relatively rare cases a woman's ovaries will release more than one egg at a time. Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are each fertilized by separate sperm cells. The level of shared genetics is approximately 50% and is similar to any siblings born apart from the same parents.
138
Natural selection
Those organisms best adapted to their environment have a better chance of surviving and reproducing.
- This theory of evolution involves the following factors
- Rapid multiplication
- Limited environmental resources
- Struggle for existence
- Variation/Mutation
- Survival of the fittest
- Inheritance of the useful variation
- Formation of new species
139
Rapid multiplication, limited resources, competition, variation & adaptation survival of the fittest
- Rapid multiplication. Many organisms reproduce more offspring than can survive (e.g., plants produce thousands of seeds; cod fish lay >million eggs).
- Limited resources. Increase of population requires mores resources (space and food), but both are limited and often relatively constant. Individuals compete for these limited resources.
- Competition (struggle for existence; BUT SEE SYMBIOSIS!). The competition for the limited resources as well as for mates plays out on three levels: intraspecific (within species), interspecific (between species), environment (eg. flood, drought etc).
- Variation & Adaptation. Because environment changes, the more genetic variation (mutation) within a species, the more likely it can adapt. Some traits in individuals allow them to adapt better to the environment than other organisms can.
- Survival of the fittest (natural selection). Individuals with most adaptive traits have higher probability to reproduce and pass on their genes. Natural selection acts on phenotype.
140
Rapid multiplication
- Rapid multiplication. Many organisms reproduce more offspring than can survive (e.g., plants produce thousands of seeds; cod fish lay >million eggs).
141
Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells
Cells had no membrane- bound organelles, e.e. as mitochondria, and had no nucleus
VS
Cells found in plants and animals contain specialised organelles, some of them surrounded by a membrane
142
symbiotic process
Processes/relationships where both organisms rely and benefit off of each other
143
Endosymbiotic theory/symbiogenisis
Explains origin of species in addition to random mutation and natural selection
- Proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from symbiosis of singly living prokaryotic life forms
(Konstantin Mereschkowski & Lynn Margulis)
144
Learning
Change in behavior due to experience.
145
Performance vs knowing (learning)
If you know it spreading, e.g. innate, it isn't learning
146
Positive & negative reinforcement
Two types of reinforcement:
1. An operant procedure in which behaviour produces a consequence and that behaviour will continue to occur in similar situations in the future.
2. An operant conditioning procedure in which behaviour removes a consequence and makes your response more likely in the future.
147
Punishment
Two types of punishment:
1. An operant procedure in which behavior produces a consequence, and then your response will not continue to occur in similar situations in the future.
2. An operant conditioning procedure in which behavior removes a consequence and makes your response less likely in the future.
148
Survival of the fittest
Natural selection. Individuals with most adaptive traits have higher probability to reproduce and pass on their genes. Natural selection acts on phenotype.
149
Conditioned/conditional stimulus
An event in Pavlovian conditioning that requires learning to be meaningful and is only meaningful because the event tells us something about the unconditional stimulus.
150
Unconditioned/unconditioned stimulus
A type of stimulus in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important event requires no conditioning to affect our behavior.
151
Unconditioned response
A type of response in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important response occurs because of an unconditional stimulus.
152
Inhibitory vs. excitatory conditioning
Type of Pavlovian conditioning in which conditioned stimulus indicates that no unconditioned stimulus will occur.
- Negative correlation between the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus (safety signal)
VS.
The conditioned stimulus indicates that an unconditioned stimulus will occur.
- Positive correlation between the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus
153
Extinction
For classical: Signal occurs without what's signalled and the conditional response goes away; conditional stimulus is presented alone, and the conditional response decreases
For operant: Behaviour which was previously reinforced now produces no consequence and goes away; the response is not reinforced and decreases.
154
Spontaneous recovery
An effect in which, after classical extinction and a break without the signal or what's signalled, the signal occurs alone, and the conditional response reappears
155
Inhibition
Type of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
156
Generalization
Conditioned response is caused by things that are similar, but not the conditioned stimulus
157
Secondary reinforcer
A type of stimulus in which consequences that were paired with primary reinforcers or already-meaningful reinforcers that will make your behaviour more likely in the future
158
Instrumental/operant conditioning
Also known as instrumental learning in which the consequences of our behaviour matter.
- Through rewards & punishment
159
Latent learning
A type of learning that has happened but hasn't had an opportunity to be demonstrated (learned, but not apparent)
160
Schedules of reinforcement
A description in words and numbers of how and when we'll earn reinforcers.
161
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure to generate new behavior in which you get new responses by breaking down a complex response into smaller steps and reinforcing responses that look more and more like that final form and no longer reinforcing earlier approximations
162
Continuous reinforcement
Responses reinforced every sign time they appear (operant)
163
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
e.g. Receive treat after repeating motion 5 times
164
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
The first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
e.g. Give treat 30 seconds after action is done
165
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one seemingly insignificant event signals an important event; a conditional stimulus provides information about the presence or absence of an unconditional stimulus
- Pavlovian
- Basis for behaviourists e.g. Watson & Skinner
- Uses stimuli
166
Pavlov
Russian psychologist, studied how dogs digest food staring with salivation
- They started salivating when he put on his coat
- Founded classical conditioning
- Takes advantage of reflexes & involves associating neutral stimulus w meaningful stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
167
Primary/unconditioned reinforcer
A type of stimulus in which biologically important consequences make your behaviour more likely in the future
168
Variable interval reinforcement
When a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
169
Operant conditioning
Also known as instrumental learning in which the consequences of our behavior matter.
170
Aversive stimulus
A type of stimulus that is something you don't like and for which you won't work.
171
Experimenter bias
e.g. • Exposure of mice and rats to male but not female experimenters produces pain inhibition
• Due to testosterone in the air, the mice rested differently
Psyc 100
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