1
Q
What does the central dogma of genetics describe?
A
The flow of genetic information in cells: DNA to RNA to protein.
Originally published by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1957.
2
Q
What enzyme allows for the creation of DNA by copying RNA?
A
Reverse transcriptase
3
Q
What is the replication of RNA from existing RNA called?
A
RNA synthesis
4
Q
What is the first step of gene expression?
A
Transcription
5
Q
What is the enzyme responsible for copying the gene’s nucleotides into an RNA molecule?
A
RNA polymerase
6
Q
What occurs during the process of transcription?
A
DNA sequence information is converted to RNA.
7
Q
What is the process of translation?
A
Sequence encoded in the RNA molecule is decoded and converted into an amino acid sequence.
8
Q
What cellular structure translates RNA sequence information into an amino acid sequence?
A
Ribosome
9
Q
What are codons in the context of translation?
A
They instruct the ribosome to place certain amino acids into the chain.
10
Q
Differentiate between transcription and translation processes.
A
- Transcription: DNA to RNA conversion.
- Translation: RNA to protein conversion.
11
Q
What does the semiconservative model of DNA replication entail?
A
The two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each strand functions as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand.
12
Q
What is DNA replication?
A
The process of duplicating the parent cell’s genetic material to ensure the correct amount of genetic material is present between daughter cells.
13
Q
What is the site of initial unwinding in DNA replication called?
A
Origin of replication.
14
Q
What is the function of helicase in DNA replication?
A
To break the hydrogen bonds holding the double strand together to unwind and expose the single strands to promote replication.
15
Q
What is the genetic code in DNA?
A
The sequence of nitrogen-containing bases that directs protein synthesis.
16
Q
What type of energy does helicase require for its action?
A
Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
17
Q
What is the directional nature of helicase?
A
Unidirectional
Once helicase begins unwinding the DNA it will only move in one direction- forward.
18
Q
What is the rule that dictates which nucleotides pair with each other during DNA replication?
A
Rule of complementary base pairing.
Adenine (A) will always pair with Thymine (T).
Cytosine (C) will always pair with Guanine (G).
19
Q
What shape does the DNA molecule form as a result of DNA helicase action?
A
Replication fork
The Y-shaped structure created by DNA helicase separating the two sides of the parental DNA.
20
Q
Why does DNA replication start at many different places on the parental strand?
A
To quickly replicate DNA.
21
Q
What does DNA polymerase do during DNA replication?
A
Adds nucleotides from the 5’-3’ direction to the leading strand and synthesizes the lagging strand in little fragments called Okazaki fragments.
Produces double-stranded DNA during DNA replication.
22
Q
How does RNA polymerase begin transcription?
A
It binds to a region in DNA called the promoter sequence, which guides RNA polymerase on where to bind to DNA.
Produces a single stranded RNA during gene expression.
23
Q
What is the role of topoisomerase in DNA replication?
A
It untangles the DNA molecule by cutting the phosphodiester bonds comprising the backbone of the DNA structure to allow unwinding during transcription and DNA replication.
24
Q
What is the function of RNA primase in DNA replication?
A
It attaches a short RNA molecule called a primer to the DNA sequence to help DNA polymerase attach to the single strand of DNA.
RNA primers are typically about 10 nucleotides long. After 10 nucleotides, DNA polymerase will begin adding DNA nucleotides.
25
What **base** does RNA primase lay down instead of thymine when building the RNA primer?
Uracil
26
What is the **outcome** if DNA polymerase mispairs a base during replication?
Mutation
27
What is the **main function** of **RNA polymerase** in transcription?
Synthesize a strand of RNA called **messenger RNA**.
28
**When** does DNA replication occur?
Prior to cell division during the **S phase of the cell cycle**.
## Footnote
Stages of the cell cycle are: G1, S, G2, M-Phase
29
Where does DNA replication occur in **eukaryotic** cells?
In the nucleus.
30
Where does **DNA replication** occur in prokaryotic cells?
In the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
31
What is the role of **single strand binding proteins** in DNA replication?
Covering unwound strands to prevent reannealing.
32
What is the function of **exonucleases** in DNA replication?
Removing RNA primers and replacing them with DNA.
33
What is the function of **DNA ligase** in DNA replication?
Connects Okazaki fragments.
## Footnote
This process is known as ligation.
34
What is the role of **Telomerase** in DNA replication?
Creates telomeres.
35
List the main steps of **DNA replication.**
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
## Footnote
**Initiation**: Helicase unwinds DNA and topoisomerase prevents supercoiling to open the DNA for DNA polymerase.
**Elongation**: DNA polymerase is the replicating enzyme that works in the 5' to 3' direction to create a complementary strand of DNA in the 3' to 5' orientation. The strand synthesized continuously is called the leading strand and the strand synthesized in fragments is called the lagging strand.
**Termination**: During termination, the primers are removed and replaced with DNA in both the leading and lagging strand, the fragments are ligated together, and telomeres are added.
36
What did **Reiji Okazaki** discover about DNA replication and antiparallel strands?
DNA polymerase builds a strand of DNA that runs 5' to 3', which posed a challenge for the other parent strand running in the 5' to 3' direction.
37
What is the name of the **parent strand that runs in the 3' to 5' direction** toward the replication fork and is replicated continuously by DNA polymerase?
Leading strand
38
What is the name of the **parent strand of DNA that runs in the 5' to 3' direction** toward the fork and is replicated discontinuously?
Lagging strand
39
How does DNA polymerase replicate the lagging strand of DNA?
By making short lengths known as **Okazaki fragments**, in a discontinuous fashion.
40
What occurs during the **initiation stage of transcription**?
1. Binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter region.
2. Formation of transcription initiation complex.
3. Unwinding of DNA for access to template DNA.
41
What are the three stages of **transcription**?
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
## Footnote
**Initiation**: Binding of RNA polymerase on the promoter region and formation of the transcription initiation complex.
**Elongation**: The addition of new nucleotides and elongation of an RNA strand by RNA polymerase in the 5' to 3' direction.
**Termination**: Terminator sequence marks the termination of the RNA transcription and RNA is released from the RNA polymerase.
42
What are the **three major types of RNA** produced during transcription?
* Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
* Messenger RNA (mRNA)
* Transfer RNA (tRNA)
43
Where does transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
* In prokaryotes, transcription and translation are coupled and occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm.
* In eukaryotes, transcription and translation occur separately in the nucleus and cytoplasm and/or endoplasmic reticulum.
44
What are the **sense** strand and **antisense** strand during **transcription**?
* **Sense strand** (Coding strand): This strand resembles the mRNA sequence (except mRNA has uracil instead of thymine). It is not used as a template during transcription.
* **Antisense strand** (Template strand): This strand serves as the template for transcription. RNA polymerase reads this strand to create a complementary mRNA strand.
45
What does **mRNA** stand for, and what is its function?
It stands for 'messenger RNA,' and it **serves as a messenger** to carry genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
46
What is the role of the **promoter** in transcription?
Marks **where transcription should begin** and signals the RNA polymerase to start transcription at that point.
47
What is the phase of transcription where RNA polymerase **transcribes the gene into a strand of mRNA**?
Elongation
## Footnote
During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes a complementary mRNA strand using the DNA template.
48
What are introns and exons?
* **Introns** are non-coding regions of DNA or RNA.
* **Exons** are coding sequences in DNA or RNA.
49
Where does **RNA transcription** occur in eukaryotes?
Within the nucleus.
50
Where does **RNA splicing** occur in eukaryotes?
In the nucleus.
51
How does the **spliceosome** identify the correct places for the removal of introns?
They look for **starting and ending points** of an intron.
## Footnote
Starting and ending points are marked by GT-AG dinucleotides or AU-AC dinucleotides.
52
What is **Alternative Splicing**?
A process where a **single RNA transcript is spliced in different ways** to produce different functional proteins.
## Footnote
Alternative splicing allows the organism to regulate different cellular activities by combining exons to form multiple proteins from the same gene.
53
What are the **potential errors** in RNA splicing?
* Removal of wrong intron.
* Exon cutting by a spliceosome.
## Footnote
Splicing errors can lead to the production of non-functional or disease-producing proteins.
54
What is **unique** about RNA processing in eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes?
Eukaryotes undergo an RNA processing step right after transcription and before translation, while prokaryotes do not have this additional step.
55
What are **spliceosomes** and their role in RNA splicing?
They are composed of protein and small RNA molecules that remove introns from RNA and join the ends of adjacent exons together during RNA splicing.
56
What is the purpose of **introns** in gene expression?
They play a role in gene expression by allowing different combinations of exons to be spliced together, leading to alternative splicing and the production of multiple proteins from a single gene.
57
Where does **RNA capping and tailing** occur?
Inside the **nucleus**, right after transcription and RNA splicing.
58
What are the **three main processes** that comprise pre-mRNA processing?
* Splicing
* Capping
* Tailing
59
What is the purpose of **RNA splicing**?
To remove introns and join exons to form mature RNA capable of producing functional proteins.
60
How are amino acid chains linked together in genetic translation?
By **peptide bonds**.
61
What is the function of **tRNA** molecules during translation?
They **match up with amino acids** and attach to the mRNA strand by matching their anticodons to the mRNA codons.
62
What is the significance of **peptide bonds** in protein synthesis?
They are covalent bonds between two amino acids that form long chains of amino acids known as **polypeptides**.
63
Where are **ribosomes** located in a cell?
On the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) surrounding the nucleus of a cell.
64
What is the process by which **peptide bonds are formed** between amino acids?
Dehydration synthesis
## Footnote
When two amino acids line up, one releases a hydrogen molecule, and the other releases an oxygen and a hydrogen, forming a water molecule. The water leaves, and the amino acids are bonded together.
65
Describe the structure of a ribosome **during translation**.
A ribosome is made of **two subunits that sandwich the mRNA strand**. The mRNA is threaded through the middle of the ribosome. Inside, the ribosome is not solid but contains molecules that allow RNA strands to move in and out.
66
Where does **translation** occur in the cell?
Inside the ribosomes.
## Footnote
Ribosomes are tiny organelles on the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
67
What is the **role of ribosomes** in translation?
They decode mRNA and link amino acids to form polypeptides.
68
What marks the **termination** of the translation process?
The presence of **stop codons**.
## Footnote
UAA, UAG, and UGA are known as stop codons.
69
What happens to the **polypeptide chain** once the translation process is terminated?
It drifts out of the ribosome and floats freely in the cytoplasm.
70
What recognizes the **stop codon** in mRNA?
Release factors.
## Footnote
Release factors are proteins that identify the stop codon in the mRNA sequence.
71
What is the **start codon** in translation?
AUG
## Footnote
AUG is the start codon that initiates the translation process.
72
What is the definition of **translation**?
The **synthesis of a polypeptide** using the genetic code found in mRNA.
73
What happens at **termination** in translation?
Once a stop codon (terminator) reaches the ribosome, translation stops, or terminates.
## Footnote
At termination, the polypeptide is freed from the ribosome, and tRNAs stop bringing the amino acids in. All of the components come apart from one another, and translation is done. The result is a brand new free-floating polypeptide.
74
What is gene repression and induction?
* **Gene repression** is when genes are **turned off** during gene expression by repressor proteins.
* **Gene induction** is when genes are **turned on** during gene expression by inducer or activator proteins.
75
How is gene expression **regulated**?
Through internal signals from internal proteins or DNA condition, as well as external signals like nutrients, hormones, and physical properties. These signals can activate or repress proteins needed for gene expression.
## Footnote
Eukaryotes are regulated through transcription factors.
Prokaryotes are regulated by RNA polymerase binding to the promoter region of a gene to create mRNA.
76
What is **gene expression**?
The process of **turning on or off** different genes in a cell to create proteins necessary for various cellular functions.
77
What is the role of the **catabolite activator protein (CAP)** site in the lac operon?
The **CAP site binds the CAP-cAMP complex** when glucose levels are low.
## Footnote
Binding of the CAP-cAMP complex enhances RNA polymerase binding to the promoter, increasing transcription of the lac operon when lactose is present.
78
What is the function of the **promoter** region in the lac operon?
It is where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription of the structural genes needed to metabolize the sugar lactose, containing structural genes for lactose metabolism.
79
How is gene expression **turned off** in prokaryotes?
Through the **binding of the repressor** to the operator, blocking RNA polymerase from reading the DNA.
80
What does the **allolactose** do in the lac operon?
**Binds to the repressor protein**, causing it to change conformation and cease binding to the operator.
81
What are **operons**, and how are they related to gene expression in prokaryotes?
They are clusters of related genes found in prokaryotes. They are translated together, allowing for the coordinated production of proteins involved in the same cellular function.
82
What is the importance of **gene regulation** in cells?
It is crucial for cells to **produce only the necessary proteins at specific times**, which ensures energy efficiency and allows cells to respond appropriately to their environment.
83
What does the **degenerate** nature of the genetic code mean?
Multiple codons may code for the same amino acid.
84
Why is the genetic code considered **universal**?
All living organisms use the same genetic code to create proteins.
85
What is **codon recognition?**
The process of **matching codons to the correct amino acids** during translation.
86
How many different codons are there?
64
87
What is a **codon chart**?
A chart of all the codons and the amino acids they stand for.
88
How do you **read** a **codon chart**?
Find the first, second, and third letter of the codon in question and use an abbreviation for which amino acid the codon codes for.
89
What is a **codon**?
A sequence of **three nucleotides** which codes for one amino acid.
## Footnote
Examples
* UAG
* CGA
90
What is **prokaryotic transcription**?
The process of transcribing DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) for translation.
91
What are the components of a typical operon?
* Promoter
* Operator region
* Regulator protein (repressor or activator)
92
What is **prokaryotic translation**?
The process of translating mRNA information into a series of amino acids to form a protein.
93
What is the function of **chaperone proteins** in protein synthesis?
To fold the polypeptide chain into the correct shape.
94
What is the **primary function of RNA** in gene expression?
Creates proteins based on the copied messenger transcript of the original DNA sequence.
95
Describe **pre-mRNA**.
An RNA transcript found in eukaryotic cells that is awaiting processing to become mRNA.
96
What nucleotide will **adenine** always bind with in DNA?
Thymine
97
What nucleotide will **guanine** always bind with in DNA?
Cytosine
NES Biology
flashcards
Decks in class (24)
# Cards
-
Scientific Inquiry & Experimental Design30
-
Designing & Testing Scientific Investigations98
-
Data Analysis & Interpretation24
-
Science, Technology & Society68
-
Biomolecules and Biochemical Processes101
-
Cell Structure and Function160
-
Energy Flow & Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystems102
-
Enzymes & Cellular Metabolism39
-
Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration100
-
Levels of Organization & Cell Specialization52
-
Life Cycles & Organismal Development97
-
Mendelian Genetics135
-
Molecular Genetics & Gene Expression97
-
Mutations & Genetic Consequences75
-
Genetic Technology & Applications104
-
Population Genetics & Evolutionary Mechanisms72
-
Evidence of Evolution & Speciation85
-
Sources of Genetic Variation36
-
Taxonomy & Classification83
-
Plant Structure and Function107
-
Animal Structure and Function186
-
Ecology & Ecosystems173
-
Energy Flow & Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystems125
-
Human Impacts & Environmental Stewardship124
