RE: ethics

Question 1

what is the principle of utility?

Answer 1

• it’s based of the idea of usefulness, or ‘utility’.
• the most useful end is the one which produces the most happiness.
• therefore actions which produce the most happiness are the best course of action.
• this is known as the ‘greatest happiness principle.

Question 2

what is the hedonic calculus?

Answer 2

a method of working out the sum total of pleasure or pain produced by an act.

Question 3

name some of the criteria in the hedonic calculus.

Answer 3

• intensity: the intensity of the happiness, or pleasure.
• duration: the duration of the pleasure caused by an act.
• purity: how much pain is mixed with the pleasure, the more pain, the less purity.
• extent: how long the pleasure lasts for.

Question 4

what is act utilitarianism?

Answer 4

• using the hedonic calculus, for example.
• considers the consequence of each individual action.
• never follow strict rules, use the greatest happiness principle.

Question 5

what is rule utilitarianism?

Answer 5

2 forms:

STRONG RULE:

• always follow rules worked out from past events, no matter what the outcome will be.
• rigid and inflexible.
• John Stuart Mill said that humans have already developed rules which help us to make moral decisions more quickly. these rules are universal in number and always result in the greatest happiness principle.

WEAK RULE:
-some rules from history can be broken if it leads to the greatest happiness principle in exceptional cases.

Question 6

how is utilitarianism a useful method of moral decision making?

Answer 6

• straightforward, based on the simple premise of minimising pain and maximising pleasure.
• it relates to actions which can be observed in the real world.
• hedonic calculus has 7 criteria, clear and organised guide makes it easier to measure happiness.
• rule utilitarianism provides a useful method of moral decision making as human beings have already developed rules to help us make moral decisions easily.
• weak rule utilitarianism is useful as certain rules can be disobeyed, making it flexible so it can be applied to a range of situations.

Question 7

how is utilitarianism not a useful method of moral decision making?

Answer 7

• it allows morally wrong acts to take place to bring about the greatest happiness as a result.
• the hedonic calculus can be difficult to apply as pleasure is far too subjective.
• it doesn’t have a proper understanding of obligation or duty. It can be overridden to bring about the greatest happiness.
• natural law is better as it has primary and secondary precepts, clear rules, better guidance.

Question 8

how is it possible to measure pleasure to make a moral decision?

Answer 8

• Jeremy bentham developed the hedonic calculus for this purpose.
• john stuart mill said that we can use pleasure as a method of making moral decisions. however, we must distinguish between higher and lower pleasures, (higher-mind) (lower-body). we should use higher pleasures to make moral decisions.
• humans are pre-programmed to seek pleasure and avoid pain, said bentham

Question 9

how is it not possible to measure pleasure to make a moral decision?

Answer 9

• pleasure is subjective, it can lead to people becoming individualistic.
• john stuart mill said that there are dangers of using ‘goodness’ and ‘pleasure’ to make moral decisions.
• kant’s theory of ethics are far more rational than utilitarianism. should be based on duty and obligation rather than pleasure and happiness.

Question 10

what did Aristotle say about ‘cause’?

Answer 10

• everything has 4 causes

- the cause of the universe is the prime mover

Question 11

what are the primary precepts?

Answer 11

• worship god
• ordered society
• reproduction
• learning
• defend the innocent.

Question 12

what are secondary precepts?

Answer 12

they’re derived from the primary precepts. a secondary precept of defend the innocent could be ‘do not abort’ for example.

Question 13

what did Aquinas say about the good?

Answer 13

• the supreme good of all humans is to achieve eudemonia. Aquinas said this is about fellowship with god.
• a moral life is one in accordance with reason

Question 14

what is the synderesis rule?

Answer 14

• syndereisis means ‘knowledge within’

- it’s one of the 2 words he uses to describe conscience, meaning ‘innate knowledge’

Question 15

what is apparent good?

Answer 15

something which seems to be the right thing but it doesn’t fit the perfect human ideal.

Question 16

what is real good?

Answer 16

the right thing to do, fits the supreme good of humans

Question 17

what does the law of double effect state?

Answer 17

• you aren’t always sure of the result of your actions
• you’re therefore only responsible for the direct consequences, not any secondary or unintended effects.
• an example of this is a patient being given a large amount of painkiller to stop pain, but it kills the patient. the doctor isn’t responsible for the patient’s death.

Question 18

what are the weaknesses of natural law?

Answer 18

• some people don’t follow this
• can’t be applied to modern issues such as abortion
• we don’t all have the perception of what’s good
• following the rule might not be a good thing.
• fletcher would argue that it’s not flexible and can’t be applied to a range of issues

Question 19

what is the nature of situation ethics?

Answer 19

• teleological: what is moral is what produces the best results
• deontological: fixed moral rules, certain actions are always wrong

Question 20

what did fletcher say about love?

Answer 20

-it’s the sovereign good, the absolute moral rule is love so we should always try to do the most loving thing.

Question 21

what is agape love?

Answer 21

it’s the love for one’s neighbours, unconditional love.

Question 22

what is situation ethics the middle-point between?

Answer 22

legalism and anti-nomianism

Question 23

what are fletcher’s 4 working principles?

explain each

Answer 23

pragmatism: any theory of ethics must be practical and work towards the end that is love
relativism: no moral absolutes so moral judgements relate to our upbringings.
positivism: chance of a successful end
personalism: humans are treated first and aren’t treated as means to an end

Question 24

what are the problems of situation ethics?

Answer 24

• subjective
• individualistic
• could break laws
• we never really know the consequences of our actions

Question 25

what is the Christian nature of situation ethics?

Answer 25

- it's based on agape love, fits with the golden rule - jesus used situation ethics, healing on the Sabbath, for example. - 1 Corinthians 13 - 'love is the most important virtue'

Question 26

what is the non-Christian nature of situation ethics?

Answer 26

- Christianity is based on rules - goes against natural law - can break the sanctity of life - William Barclay said that it would work if we all act like jesus, but we don't

Question 27

what did Karl Popper say about utilitarianism?

Answer 27

NEGATIVE UTILITARIANISM: - 'no symmetry between suffering and happiness, pain and pleasure.' - greatest happiness principle is fundamentally wrong so bentham is wrong. - we help the needy but don't work to further increase the happiness of those already doing well.

Question 28

what did David Pearce say about utilitarianism?

Answer 28

THE HEDONISTIC IMPERATIVE: -we must 'eradicate suffering in all sentinent life'. minimising pain: -pearce and popper would argue that it's easier to define what constitutes pain than what constitutes happiness. happiness is far too subjective maximising pleasure: - positive utilitarianism is maximising pleasure. - suffering of few may lead to happiness of others. - it depends on the long term potential of happiness to allow immediate suffering.

Question 29

what was kant's deontological approach to ethics?

Answer 29

- if a certain act is right, then it's right in all circumstances and situations - we're obliged to act morally and so obey the moral law irrespective of consequences

Question 30

what did kant say about good will?

Answer 30

- the morality of our actions don't depend on the outcome. | - we can control the will behind the action.

Question 31

what did kant say about duty?

Answer 31

- people have a duty to act accordingly, regardless of the good or bad consequences that may be produced. - to act morally is to do your duty and by truthful.

Question 32

what is the hypothetical imperative?

Answer 32

an action considered as right depending upon a condition.

Question 33

what is the categorical imperative?

Answer 33

kant's idea that an action is intrinsically right irrespective of context or consequence.

Question 34

what is the formula of the law of nature?

Answer 34

the only actions that are moral are ones which can be universalised. can be used in every context etc.

Question 35

what is the formula of the end in itself?

Answer 35

human beings are the pinnacle of creation so they can't be exploited and used as a means to an end

Question 36

what is the formula of the kingdom of ends?

Answer 36

by using out reason we should be able to see that moral laws are correct and that morality is only possible if we act in accordance with these truths.

Question 37

what are kant's 3 postulates?

Answer 37

freedom: a moral action is one which can be freely chosen immortality: virtuous actions aren't always rewarded by happiness. we must be rewarded in the afterlife god: god is the necessary connection between virtue and happiness.

Question 38

what is the summum bonum?

Answer 38

it's logical for a virtuous action to be rewarded by happiness eventually. this happiness is known as the summum bonum, or 'highest good'. it's the state where true virtue, happiness and duty come together.

Question 39

how do Kantian ethics provide a helpful method of decision making?

Answer 39

- it's rational. ethics must be based on reason not subjective emotion. it doesn't allow us to show favouritism. - the categorical imperative tells us what's right and wrong, giving us a clear sense of moral guidelines - he said that humans are the pinnacle of creation. this means that his approach treats humans as an end in themselves.

Question 40

how do Kantian ethics not provide a helpful method of decision making?

Answer 40

- joseph fletcher argued that acting out of a sense of duty is cold and impersonal. factors such as sympathy and love need to be involved. - kant rejected hypothetical imperatives despite them being the basis on which humans make moral decisions. - universal rules aren't useful in the real world where every situation is unique.

Question 41

what is the sanctity of life?

Answer 41

the belief that all life is sacred because it's made by god. this means that only god can take life away as he created it.

Question 42

what did the bible say about suicide?

Answer 42

it's blasphemy as it's a deliberate rejection of god's gift of life.

Question 43

what does peter singer's quality of life principle state?

Answer 43

he had 5 rational quality of life commandments: 1) recognise the worth of human life varies 2) take responsibility for the consequences of your decision 3) respect a person's desire to live or die 4) bring children into the world only if they're wanted. 5) don't discriminate on the basis of species

Question 44

what are the different utilitarian judgements on euthanasia?

Answer 44

total happiness judgement: if a person is happy then the longer the life he or she lives, the greater the quality of life they have. however, if a person doesn't have a good quality of life, then their life has no worth and can be ended. average happiness judgement: if a person's average level of happiness can be maintained at a high level, then he or she has a greater quality of life. however, if the average declines from a previous peak, then the life is no longer worth living and can be ended. higher qualities judgement: a person's quality of life is judged by certain minimum standards which are necessary to live a happy life. if a person lacks these minimum qualities, their life is no longer worth living an can be ended.

Question 45

what is voluntary euthanasia?

Answer 45

when the person who is killed is has requested to be killed.

Question 46

what is non-voluntary euthanasia?

Answer 46

when a decision is made on behalf of the situation.

Question 47

how can situation ethics be applied to euthanasia?

Answer 47

4 working principles can be applied as follows: -pragmatism: no intrinsic laws prohibit the use of euthanasia. using limited resources to keep a terminally ill patient alive at the expense of others' welfare is unjustifiable - relativism: killing innocent people cannot be an absolute wrong, each case must be judged based on compassion etc. - positivism: no law states that a life must be preserved at all costs. - personalism: at the heart of the situation there's respect for the person's autonomy and human integrity. the principle of love means acknowledging that a person's life may not be of any value to them.

Question 48

how can natural law be applied to euthanasia?

Answer 48

orderly society: it undermines the social stability of society as undermines the purpose of the citizen to maintain laws duty to god: a primary natural law duty is to worship god. Aquinas and Augustine argue that euthanasia goes against one's duty to protect innocent life no refusal or treatment: ordinary treatment is obligatory, life must be preserved. extraordinary treatment is not obligatory, don't have high chance of success and are dangerous (surgery, for example) duty to protect innocent life: natural states that whatever state of consciousness a person is in, they're still a person. therefore, the doctor has a duty to prolong life.

Question 49

what are the 2 main arguments used by people in support of euthanasia? explain each

Answer 49

ethical argument: people should have freedom of choice as it's their own body and life pragmatic argument: passive euthanasia is already a widespread practice so it's better to regulate it properly

Question 50

what are the 4 arguments used by people who oppose euthanasia?

Answer 50

religious argument: these practices can never be justified for religious reasons slippery slope argument: legalising euthanasia could lead to unintended changes to our health system where involuntary euthanasia becomes the norm medical ethics argument: violation of fundamental medical ethics. alternative argument: it's not a valid option as it represents a failure in the doctor's care

Question 51

what is corporate social responsibility?

Answer 51

the belief that a business has a responsibility toward the environment and the people

Question 52

what did cardinal Vincent Nichols say in his 'blueprint for good business'?

Answer 52

7 principles for good business, for example: - human dignity - common good - solidarity (being in touch with the needs of communities) - fraternity (fellowship with different cultures)

Question 53

what are some arguments against corporate social responsibility?

Answer 53

- Robert C. Solomon argues that there's no contradiction between exhibiting good values and being successful - few people claim to have been disrespected by a company

Question 54

what is whistleblowing?

Answer 54

when an employee discloses wrongdoing of a company to the public

Question 55

how did kant agree with whistleblowing?

Answer 55

he said that it seems unlikely that we'd be willing to universalise corruption

Question 56

what are arguments against whistleblowing?

Answer 56

- kant said that we must do our duty, and our duty includes loyalty - bentham said that it could lead to pain to those who are exposed. it might be morally acceptable if a cover up leads to the greatest happiness principle.

Question 57

what does Robert C. Solomon mean by 'good ethics is good business'

Answer 57

- an ethical company is more likely to prosper - honesty is good for business as a customer wouldn't return to a dishonest shopkeeper. - an ethical company can experience some benefits, such as charging higher prices, for example. honesty and fair treatment leads to faith in a company

Question 58

what is an argument against good ethics being good business?

Answer 58

some corrupt organisations are very successful, such as fifa

Question 59

what is globalisation?

Answer 59

increasing interdependence of countries

Question 60

how can utilitarianism be applied to corporate social responsibility?

Answer 60

bentham and mill would be in support of it as it leads to the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Question 61

how can Kantian ethics be applied to corporate social responsibility?

Answer 61

he believed in doing the right thing because it's the right thing to do. a good shopkeeper is honest not because it's good for business, but because it's the right thing to do. In this case we have a corporate responsibility as it's our duty. if a business was simply acting ethically to make profit, it would not be moral

Question 62

how can utilitarianism be applied to whistle blowing?

Answer 62

they'd ask whether the greater good is served by allowing this kind of corruption. if a cover up leads to the greatest happiness for the greatest number then it can be classed as morally acceptable.

Question 63

how can Kantian ethics be applied to whistle blowing?

Answer 63

we must do our duty, which includes loyalty. however, it seems unlikely that we'd be willing to universalise corruption. categorical imperatives of right and wrong go beyond the obligation you have to your employer

Question 64

how can utilitarianism be applied to 'good ethics is good business'

Answer 64

any business decision should maximise positive effects and minimise negative effects. Lawrence Hinman said that the aim is to find 'the greatest overall consequences for everyone'. this will mean that business should act ethically.

Question 65

how can Kantian ethics be applied to 'good ethics is good business'.

Answer 65

humans are the pinnacle of creation so they shouldn't be treated as means to an end. no-one should be exploited to make profit

Question 66

how can utilitarianism be applied to globalisation?

Answer 66

the suffering of few workers in a far-off place may be cancelled out by the happiness of the consumers. peter singer argued that the ability of a person to suffer is crucial in making the right decision. no-ones more valuable than anyone else.

Question 67

how can Kantian ethics be applied to globalisation

Answer 67

businesses exploiting labour in poor countries is morally questionable. no-one could universalise exploiting people. such exploitation shows no good will for the end is not dutiful