influence of L1 on SLA?
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis:
- began with Lado (1957)
- tradition of behaviourism, language as a set of habits
- -> linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners’ first and second languages to predict errors
- positive transfer (facilitation) vs. negative transfer (interference)
__________
Error analysis in SLA
- (1960s)
- systematic error versus incidental mistake
- interlingual (L1) versus intralingual
–> Interlingual error: interference
–> intralingual: misuse of target lg structures
(error cause lies within and between the target language itself and the Learners false application)
A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.
- in SLA error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors
___________
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
- by Eckman (1977)
- proposes revision of Contrastive Analysis H.
- degree of difficulty depends on markedness of structure
- universal focus, L1 not important
a) Those areas of the target language which differ from the native language and are more marked than the native language will be difficult.
b) The relative degree of difficulty of the areas of the target language which are more marked than the native language will corrspond to the relative degree of markedness.
c) Those areas of the target language which are different from the native language but are not more marked than the native language will not be difficult.
___________
Creative Construction Hypothesis:
- developed by Krashen (1980s)
- speaker only speaks target lg
- based on the assumption that lg acquisition is innately determined and that we are born with a certain lg learning system
- natural order of morpheme acquisition
–> Natural order studies have shed important light on the order in which speakers acquire grammatical morphemes.
there may be a consistent order in which first and/or second language learners acquire proficiency in the use of grammatical morphemes, which are traditionally defined in linguistics as “minimal unit[s] of meaning”
- developmental sequences
________
Focus on speaker perception and effects thereof:
- Avoidance
— due to significant differences,
— due to mistrust of similarities,
— due to complexity of L2 structures in question
EXAMPLE:
- L2 often avoid phrasal verbs in favour of Latinate alternatives:
–> let down/disappoint, back up/support, look up to/admire
- overuse/underuse
- -> e.g. non-finite clauses, article use
- overproduction:
- -> structure parallel to L1 is overused in L2
- Differential learning rates:
- -> due to differences L1 – L2
- Different paths:
- -> due to facts in L1
- “transfer somewhere principle”:
- -> transfer only if L2 invites it. the conscious transfer of language illustrated by Roger Andersen. holds that “a language structure will be susceptible to transfer only if it is compatible with natural acquisitional principles or is perceived to have similar counterpart (a somewhere to transfer to) in the recipient language.”
- selective transfer:
- -> difference causes novelty effect, salience speeds up learning
- learner´s psychotypology:
[psychotypology: the way in which a language learner perceives differences and similarities between languages, affecting how he/she communicates in those languages.}
–> language-specific (marginal) vs language neutral (core),
typical universal structures are transferred - perception of distance
- interlanguage transfer
- “talk foreign” principle leads to L2 influence on L3 not only if real similarities exist
- faster learning by multilinguals (triggered UG or practice?)
_________
Creative Construction Hypothesis
- developed by Krashen (1980s)
- speaker only speaks target lg
- based on the assumption that lg acquisition is innately determined and that we are born with a certain lg learning system
- natural order of morpheme acquisition
–> Natural order studies have shed important light on the order in which speakers acquire grammatical morphemes.
there may be a consistent order in which first and/or second language learners acquire proficiency in the use of grammatical morphemes, which are traditionally defined in linguistics as “minimal unit[s] of meaning” - developmental sequences
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
- tradition of behaviourism, language as a set of habits
- -> linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners’ first and second languages to predict errors
- positive transfer (facilitation) vs. negative transfer (interference)
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
- by Eckman (1977)
- proposes revision of Contrastive Analysis H.
- degree of difficulty depends on markedness of structure
a) Those areas of the target language which differ from the native language and are more marked than the native language will be difficult.
b) The relative degree of difficulty of the areas of the target language which are more marked than the native language will corrspond to the relative degree of markedness.
c) Those areas of the target language which are different from the native language but are not more marked than the native language will not be difficult.
Error analysis in SLA
Error analysis in SLA (1960s):
- systematic error versus incidental mistake
- interlingual (L1) versus intralingual
–> Interlingual error: interference
–> intralingual: misuse of target lg structures
(error cause lies within and between the target language itself and the Learners false application)
A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.
- in SLA error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors
Models of L2 acquisition
- Competition Model (of Bates and MacWhinney)
- performance-oriented;
- meaning-based (lexical meaning, world knowledge, situational cues, animacy) and
- grammar-based cues (word order, morphology);
- criticism
- Monitor Model of Krashen:
- acquisition-learning hypothesis (performance – competence),
- natural order hypothesis (predictable order),
- monitor hypothesis (learned system has control function given time and attention to form),
- input hypothesis (i+1),
- affective filter hypothesis (emotions important for (lack of) success);
- criticism
- Connectionism:
- parallel distributed processing (PDP) biological model,
- neural network due to associations as a result of repeated patterns;
- learning is pattern association
Factors that influence SLA achievement
- age
- social distance
- anxiety
- locus of control
- personality
- motivation
- learning strategies
- aptitude
Age and SLA
general agreement on age effects in second language acquisition
–> especially in phonology and grammar
- affects speed of learning and ultimate achievement
____
- Sensitive Period Hypothesis;
- gradual decline affecting different skills at different rates
- -> phonology:
- decline after 2-6
- significant decline after puberty
- highly age-sensitive but no predictable abrupt change
- similar sounds to L1 most negatively affected
- novel sounds not as difficult
- – training makes a difference
- – talent makes a difference
- – motivation makes a difference
–> syntax:
Johnson and Newport study (1989)
- grammaticality judgement task
- gradual decline between 6 and 16 (Strong Correlation) then no effect (other factors important)
_____
DeKeyser 2000
- introduced aptitude, rerun of Johnson and Newport study
- negative correlation between age of learning and ultimate proficiency
- verbal aptitude is a predictor of proficiency for adult learners, not by children
[Versus Critical Period Hypothesis
- abrupt onset
- plateau of best opportunity
- period of decline
- asymptotic offset
- no effects after offset]
explanations for SPH:
- psychological reasons (identity, motivation),
- cognitive factors (too much cognition harms, loss of access to LAD)
____
In immigrant families children learn easily and well.
2. Adults learn faster initially but are overtaken by young learners.
3. Younger learners are better overall achievers in grammar and phonology.
4. Early bilinguals show similar neural set-up in the two languages, late
bilinguals are more right hemisphere-oriented.
5. Adult learners vary tremendously in their overall success.
6. Young learners normally achieve good target pronunciation while only
5% of adult learners achieve a native accent.
\_\_\_\_ age claims - 5 years (Krashen 1973) - 6 years (Pinker 1994) - 9 years (Penfield and Roberts 1959) - 12 years (Lenneberg 1967) - 15 years (Johnson and Newport 1989, Birdsong and Mollis 2001)
- -> variable just like any other stages
- -> complex for various levels and tasks (phonology affected first, then grammar, lexicon never)
- -> possibly affected by practice
locus of control and SLA
Locus of Control
internal: external:
stable: Ability - Task difficulty
Stability
unstable: Effort - Luck
_____
internal versus external
(cf. the 90-10 principle, i.e. 10% of life is made up of what happens to you, 90% of life is decided by how you react; e.g. ability versus task, effort versus luck)
stable versus unstable
(e.g. ability versus effort, task difficulty versus luck)
disposition towards internal, unstable locus of control may favour (language) learning
personality and SLA achievement
- extroversion versus introversion (depends on task)
- risk-taking versus risk-avoiding (but depends on situation)
- field dependence versus field-independence (language learning needs both skills)
________ - Field dependence : cognitive style in which the perception of a local element is relatively strongly influenced by the surrounding context
- Field independence: cognitive style in which the perception of a local element is less strongly influenced by the surrounding context
Underlying learning style theory:
- field-independent people are at an advantage in ignoring the (irrelevant!) background image (= “field”) in the embedded figures test (=> previous slide)
=> field-independent people will find the hidden figure faster
- field-dependent people have difficulties ignoring the (irrelevant) “field” (background)
=> field-independent people will find the hidden figure faster
motivation and SLA success
- integrative versus instrumental (Gardner/Lambert)
but possibly Canada-specific, - strength of motivation also relevant
- long-term versus short-term,
- ideal level of perceived challenge
- success and motivation are in reciprocal correlation (chicken and egg problem)
learning strategies as factor for success in SLA
internal (cognitive) and external (physical),
e.g. grouping, repetition, formal memorizing, guessing, clarification, reasoning, information gaining, physical activities
aptitude and SLA
…doesn´t correlate with common IQ tests
- phonemic decoding (discrimination and memory)
- analytic skills: grammatical sensitivity (recognition of function of patterns)
inductive learning ability (ability to deduct rules from data)
- memory for text
nature of knowledge of L2
- non-native knowledge quantitatively less, qualitatively different from native knowledge
- prefabricated un-analysed chunks, stages of reanalysis
- increasing complexity not necessarily awareness of structures
- implicit learning (more based on memory and intuitive analysis)
- explicit learning (based on instruction, awareness of structures, may turn implicit with practice)
- automaticity (automatic, not always correctly analysed - analysis - practice - automatic again)
- restructuring; evidence of discontinuous success, three stages
What is interlanguage?
Transitional system reflecting current L2 knowledge
Contrastive analysis hypothesis vs Error analysis
CAH
- developed under impression that lg can be seen as behavioral action
- stimulus-response theory
EA
- didn’t view errors as result of false habits due to L1, but as influences between intra- and interlingual factors
What is language aptitude and what function does it have in SLA?
- separate from general IQ and achievement
- Separate from motivation
- stable factor, perhaps innate, cognitive mode
- not a prerequisite for SLA
… but a capacity that enhances rate and ease of learning
______
People greatly differ in how fast, how well and by what means they learn an additional lg.
- variability in rates, outcome and processes strikingly large, especially in late learners
- -> Shows there are individual differences in lg learning…
Language aptitude is one part of it, and is a cognitive mode. One of the best researched (along with motivation, a conative construct) in this area of SLA.
Lg aptitude can explain why some people just have ‘an ear’ for foreign languages, or ‘a knack’ for lg learning.
Seems to have to do with abilities which we are born with. At first blush research supports this.
But need to define whether it means a person learns a lg really fast, or learns it really well..? are those just overall highly intelligent?
This part not that easy…harder to define what it exactly is, than testing it.
MLAT (Modern Language Aptitude Test) used to predict an individuals level of lg aptitude.
____
Cognition refers to how the info is processed and learned by the human mind.
Conation addresses how humans use free will and freedom to make choices that result in new behaviors
(And affect encompasses issues of temperament, emotions and how people feel towards ppl, infos, thought, etc.)
What is SLA?
SLA (Second Lg Acquisition)is the scholarly field of inquiry that investigates the human capacity to learn lgs other than the first, during late childhood, adolescence or adulthood, and once the first lg or lgs have been acquired.
It studies a wide variety of complex influences and phenomena that contribute to the puzzling range of possible outcomes when learning an additional lg in a variety of contexts.
What do we need to acquire in a lg?
Learning a new lg means processing a number of elements…
- lexicon
- phonology
- morphology
- syntax
- pragmatics
- sociolinguistics
- discourse
What kind of theories are there to attempt an understanding of SLA?
Explain briefly
Generally:
- Formalist/Innatist
versus
- Functionalist/Usage-based
- Emergentists somewhere in the middle
Emergentism:
is the view that SLA occurs “bottom-up,” that is, learners use general mechanisms to acquire an L2, as opposed to innate language-specific methods.
Historically:
First attempt was Behaviorism, which has been mostly refused since 1970s and Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar (Formalist Approach). Later psychological approaches of connectionism (Functionalist Approach?).
Since then the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon Noam Chomsky’s universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisition theory and connectionism.
________
- Behaviourism
(Skinner 1957, tabula rasa, no innate knowledge, behavior as response to stimuli and happens in associative chains)
________
- Universal Grammar Theory
(Chomsky 1975; internal syllabus = abstract principles; innate universal grammar system; interlanguage development; poverty of the stimulus)
- existence of an innate universal grammar, grounded on the poverty of the stimulus
- principles, basic properties which all languages share, and parameters, properties which can vary between languages, has been the basis for much second-language research.
CRITIQUE
- main shortcoming:
it does not deal at all with the psychological processes involved with learning a language. UG scholarship is only concerned with whether parameters are set or not, not with how they are set.
_________
- Monitor Theory
(Krashen 1982 and 2009;
- lead to “Natural Approach” methodology;
- order of acquisition;
- Monitor Model: acquisition system is unconscious and implicit; learning system is conscious and explicit; posits a distinction between the two
- comprehensible input theory;
=> just beyond what the learner can fully understand; this input is comprehensible, but contains structures that are not yet fully understood.
- affective filter hypothesis: positive attitude towards learning lower barriers
– in contrast to emergentist and connectionist theories, he follows the innate approach by applying Chomsky’s Government and binding theory and concept of Universal grammar (UG) to second-language acquisition: Language Acquisition Device: uses L2 input to define the parameters of the L2, within the constraints of UG
________
- Interaction Hypothesis
(1980s; Input = the lg learners are exposed to; 2 types of input: interactional and non-interactional; role of interaction; corrective feedback; output = lg learner has to produce to express meaning
Long’s interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. Similarly to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, the Interaction Hypothesis claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. In addition, it claims that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for meaning.
______
- Processability Theory
(Output Processing procedures
_____
- Input Processing Theory
_____
- Skill Acquisition Theory
______
- Emergentism
_____
- Declarative and Procedural Model
____
- Complexity Theory
____
- Sociocultural Theory, Social Interaction Theory
Why are some learners more successful than others? How can the classroom situation be adjusted to help?
Categories:
- L1-driven factors
- social (age, class)
- cognitive
or other categorization:
- variable vs. fixed factors
What does the Behaviorist approach mean for SLA?
or the Generative approach? And others?
Behaviorist:
- implies that language learning is based on a set of habits performed
- in L2 teaching: repititions, drills
- -> doesn’t include creative, cognitive processes by learners
Generative (Nativist):
- implies everybody has an innate ability to learn lg = Universal Grammar
- more true so for L1A, in L1 won’t respond to correction if developmentally not ready; predicatble stages of learning
- Language Acquisition Device
- -> but why can’t we all do it equally well then?
- -> doesn’t touch on social factors
Constructionist:
- (usually) opposed to generativism
- Usage-based (rather than shaped by innate rules)
=> competence-performance distinction typically rejected
Social Interaction Theory
- create situations for students to communicate
- background for social interaction theor is Vygotsk (Psychologist)
How does the age affect the likelihood of acquiring native-like morphosyntax?
- adults and older children have an initial advantage over young children
- -> advantage may last up to 1-3 years
- early starters will catch up & will outperform late starters
- Some studies support the idea that age and morphosyntactic attainment are systematically related
- There does not seem to be a sharp drop in grammatical intuitions after some critical age
- L2 speakers with an initial exposure prior to 15 Y do significantly better than L2 speakers with an initial exposure after 15 Y
- Some exceptionally successful ‘late’ learners
- but some grammatical functions more difficult
e.g. aspect marking harder later on
_________ - age more relevant on level of pronunciation
- some explanations:
–> perception is specialized really well in L1 so learner often doesn’t even perceive that
a change in sound is needed to sound more native-like
General explanations for Age effect:
- neurological
successful only if the learning processes take place during the period of brain maturatio = period of high brain plasticity, after maturation brain is no longer flexible enough (decreasing brain plasticity, - lateralisation is largely complete by the age of six)
- Affective Explanations:
young children are open and uninhibited older children become conscious of themselves relative to others. after puberty, emotions related to self-consciousness might inhibit language learning
What changes with age in learning process? How can you adjust this as a teacher?
- motivation
- ‘lateralization’ of brain function
older learn faster initially but younger better in the end
Adjustments: - exposing for young learner
- more explaining for older learners
- neurological:
– if learners use the lg a lot, it improves their learning process
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Misc-Major Changes50
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Misc - Exam6
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First Language Acquisition12
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Language Change20
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Regional Variation19
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Pragmatics8
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Semantics49
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Syntax26
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Schools of linguistics8
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Phonetics-Phonology78
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Morphology and word formation51
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Sociolinguistics9
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Constrasting Engl and German27
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History of English48
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Second Language Acquisition59
