Self and Personality

Question 1

Temperament:

Answer 1

an individual’s behavioural style and characteristic way of emotionally responding to events.

Question 2

Personality

Answer 2

Unique, organized combination of characteristics, motives, values and behaviours that make up an individual.

Question 3

Self-concept

Answer 3

Perception of self; your understanding of what you are like.

Question 4

Self-esteem

Answer 4

Your evaluation of yourself; self-worth.

Question 5

Identity

Answer 5

An overall sense of who you are.

Question 6

Thomas and Chess (NYLS)

Answer 6

assessed infants on 9 temperamental dimension:
1 Activity level
2 Rhythmicity (regularity)
3 Approach/withdrawal
4 Adaptability
5 Sensitivity
6 Intensity of reaction
7 Mood
8 Persistence
9 Distractibility

Question 7

Three temperamental catregories

Answer 7

1. easy infants
2. difficult infants
3. slow to warm up infants

Question 8

Easy infants

Answer 8

are cheerful and even-tempered, have regular biological rhythms and adapt easily to new experiences.

Question 9

Difficult infants

Answer 9

are active, intense and irritable, have irregular biological rhythms and are negative towards new experiences

Question 10

Slow to warm up infants

Answer 10

are much less active and intense, but take some time to adapt to new experiences.

Question 11

Rothbart’s three basic temperamental dimensions

Answer 11

1. Surgency/extraversion
2. Negative affectivity
3. Effortful control

Question 12

Surgency/extraversion:

Answer 12

tendency to actively and energetically approach new experiences

Question 13

Negative affectivity:

Answer 13

tendency to be sad, easily frustrated, and irritable

Question 14

Effortful control:

Answer 14

ability to sustain attention, control one’s behaviour, and regulate one’s emotions.

Question 15

Behavioural inhibition:

(Kagan)

Answer 15

unihibited children are confident, eager and positive whereas inhibited children are shy, cautious and timid.

Question 16

How is temperament measured?

Answer 16

3 main techniques:

1. Parental questionnaire
2. Laboratory observations
3. Home observations

Question 17

How does temperament affect development?

Answer 17

• How caregivers react to the child
• How the child interprets and makes sense of life experiences
• The child’s choice of certain activities and environments

Question 18

inhibited children brain

Answer 18

The amygdala and hypothalamus, which control responses to uncertainty, are more easily aroused in inhibited children.

Question 19

Kagan’s belief about temperamental genetics

Answer 19

Early temperamental differences in behavioural inhibition are rooted in inherited differences in brain chemistry and functioning.

Question 20

Heritability research

Answer 20

• indicates that only about half of the individual differences in temperament can be traced to differences in genetic make-up.
• A child’s experiences play an important role in shaping temperament-based behaviours.

Question 21

Goodness of fit

Answer 21

• the match between the child’s temperament, and the demands and expectations of their environment
• For children to develop at their best, parenting must be tailored to their temperaments.

Question 22

How can professionals use temperament research to assist children and parents?

Answer 22

• Education
• Individual behavioural assessment
• Environmental intervention
• Support groups

Question 23

Trait theories

Answer 23

personality consists of broad dispositions (traits) that tend to produce characteristic responses

Question 24

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

Answer 24

Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness to experience
Extraversion

Question 25

Personality changes in adulthood

Answer 25

neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience show modest declines during adulthood, whereas agreeableness and conscientiousness increase from early to middle adulthood, and then level off.

Question 26

Compared to younger adults, middle-aged adults become more introspective and show increased:

Answer 26

1. self acceptance 2. autonomy 3. environmental mastery

Question 27

Explanations for stability of personality

Answer 27

1. Heredity 2. Childhood experiences 3. Stability of environments 4. Gene-environment correlations

Question 28

Explanations for change of personality

Answer 28

1. Biological factors 2. Major life events 3. Socio-political factors 4. Poor person-environment fit

Question 29

I-self

Answer 29

(sense of self as an agent) emerges during the first year.

Question 30

Me-self

Answer 30

(sense of self as an object of knowledge and evaluation) develops during the second year. From about 18 months, toddlers show self-recognition.

Question 31

Self-awareness leads to:

Answer 31

- Self-conscious emotions - Perspective-taking - Empathy

Question 32

Compliance begins to appear

Answer 32

between 12 and 18 months.

Question 33

Self-control first appears around

Answer 33

18 months

Question 34

Categorising the self

Answer 34

From about 18 months, toddlers begin to classify themselves and others into social categories.

Question 35

Developmental changes in self-concept: early childhood

Answer 35

Preschoolers define themselves in concrete, physical terms.

Question 36

Developmental changes in self-concept: middle childhood

Answer 36

Children develop a more complex self-concept incorporating: - Internal, psychological characteristics - Social aspects (e.g. social groups) - Social comparison

Question 37

Developmental changes in self-concept: Adolescence

Answer 37

Self-concepts become more: - Self-conscious - Abstract - Fluctuating - Integrated -And adolescents increasingly start to think about possible selves.

Question 38

Developmental changes in self-concept: Adulthood

Answer 38

- Self-concepts become more secure and complex. | - Possible selves become fewer and more modest, concrete and realistic.

Question 39

Cultural influences on self-concept

Answer 39

In individualistic cultures, self-descriptions focus on unique personal characteristics and emphasise positive qualities. In collectivist cultures, people are more likely to describe themselves in terms of their social roles, and are more modest and self-critical.

Question 40

Developmental Changes in Self-esteem: early childhood

Answer 40

Preschoolers tend to have very high self-esteem.

Question 41

Developmental Changes in Self-esteem: Middle childhood

Answer 41

- self-esteem drops to more realistic levels, as children compare their real selves to their ideal selves and judge themselves in comparison with others. - Self-evaluations become more differentiated, and more integrated

Question 42

Developmental Changes in Self-esteem: Adolescence

Answer 42

A dip in self-esteem is common in early adolescence. Nevertheless, most adolescents have a positive self-image.

Question 43

Developmental Changes in Self-esteem: Adulthood

Answer 43

Some evidence that self-esteem may rise gradually in adulthood, then decline slightly in old age.

Question 44

Effective strategies for increasing self esteem

Answer 44

- Identifying areas of competence - Providing emotional support and social approval - Acquiring skills - Coping

Question 45

3 big issues of identity

Answer 45

1. Career choice 2. Adoption of values to believe in and live by 3. Development of a sexual identity

Question 46

No crisis + no commitment

Answer 46

diffusion

Question 47

no crisis + commitment made

Answer 47

foreclosure

Question 48

crisis experienced + no commitment

Answer 48

moratorium

Question 49

crisis experienced + commitment made

Answer 49

identity achievement

Question 50

Contemporary views of identity

Answer 50

- Identity development does not happen neatly, but in bits and pieces (“MAMA” cycle is probably healthy). - Identity development is a gradual, life-long process, although important changes do take place in adolescence and young adulthood.

Question 51

Factors influencing identity development

Answer 51

- Cognitive growth - Personality - Relationships with parents - Experiences outside the home - Broader social, economic and cultural context