THE LEARNING PROCESS

Question 1

WHAT ARE THE 3 DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING? (CAL)

Answer 1

LEARNING CAN BE DEFINED..

1.) CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR AS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCE. THE BEHAVIOR CAN BE PHYSICAL & OVERT, OR IT CAN BE INTELLECTUAL OR ATTITUDINAL

2.) ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE OR SKILL THROUGH STUDY, INSTRUCTION, OR EXPERIENCE

3.) LASTING COGNITIVE CHANGE INFLUENCED BY EXPERIENCE AND DIRECTLY IMPACTING BEHAVIOR

Question 2

WHAT DO ALL THE DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING SHARE IN COMMON?

Answer 2

ALL DEFINITIONS SHARE A COMMON IDEA: LEARNING IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS AND COMES THROUGH EXPERIENCE

Question 3

WHAT IS LEARNING THEORY & WHAT ARE THE PRIMARY 2 THEORIES?

Answer 3

• LEARNING THEORY IS A BODY OF PRINCIPLES THAT EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, & ATTITUDES
• THE 2 PRIMARY THEORIES: BEHAVIORISM & COGNITIVE THEORY

Question 4

WHAT IS BEHAVIORISM?

Answer 4

BEHAVIORIST BELIEVE THAT LEARNING OCCURS THROUGH THE REINFORCEMENT OF BEHAVIORS & THAT EXTERNAL STIMULI CAN SHAPE OR CONTROL BEHAVIORS

Question 5

WHAT CONCEPTS IS BEHAVIORISM BASED ON & WHAT ARE THE 2 MODELS FOR LEARNING BEHAVIORISM

Answer 5

CONCEPTS BEHAVIORISM IS BASED ON:

1.) ALL HUMANS LEARN IN THE SAME MANNER
2.) ALL BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED FROM THE ENVIRONMENT
3.) HUMAN BEHAVIOR CAN BE PREDICTED BASED ON PAST REWARDS & PUNISHMENTS

THE 2 MODELS ARE:

1.) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (STIMULUS-RESPONSE)
2.) OPERANT CONDITIONING (REINFORCEMENT)

Question 6

WHAT IS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (STIMULUS-RESPONSE)

Answer 6

• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IS LEARNING THAT OCCURS WHEN TWO STIMULI ARE CONSISTENTLY PAIRED
• PAVLOV, OBSERVED THAT DOGS COULD BE CONDITIONED TO SALIVATE IN RESPONSE TO A TONE AFTER REPEATEDLY ASSOCIATING THE SOUND WITH FOOD

EX.. WHEN HEARING THE STALL WARNING HORN, A PILOT AUTOMATICALLY TENSES UP OR BECOMES MORE ALERT

Question 7

WHAT IS OPERANT CONDITIONING (REINFORCEMENT)

Answer 7

• OPERANT CONDITIONING MODIFIES BEHAVIOR USING REWARDS OR PUNISHMENTS
• BASED OFF OF THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT, WHICH STATES THAT PLEASANT EXPERIENCES ENHANCE LEARNING WHILE UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCES HINDER LEARNING

Question 8

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT?

Answer 8

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT:

1.) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: A REWARD IS GIVEN FOR CORRECT BEHAVIOR (BEHAVIOR IS STRENGTHENED)

2.) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: A PENALTY IS REMOVED FOR CORRECT BEHAVIOR (BEHAVIOR IS STRENGTHENED)

3.) EXTINCTION: A REWARD FOR CORRECT ANSWERS IS REMOVED AFTER INCORRECT ANSWERS (BEHAVIOR WILL SLOWLY DISAPPEAR)

4.) PUNISHMENT: A PENALTY IS GIVEN DUE TO INCORRECT BEHAVIOR (BEHAVIOR IS WEAKENED)

Question 9

WHAT IS THE COGNITIVE THEORY?

Answer 9

COGNITIVE THEORY EMPHASIZES INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES (COGNITION) OVER STIMULUS & RESPONSE, RECOGNIZING THAT LEARNING ENCOMPASSES CHANGES IN THINKING, UNDERSTANDING, & EMOTIONS

EX.. A LEARNER INTERNALIZES & APPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF WEATHER PATTERNS TO MAKE STRATEGIC FLYING DECISIONS

Question 10

WHAT ARE THE POPULAR LEARNING CONCEPTS BASED ON COGNITIVE THEORY (3 - ARS)

Answer 10

1.) ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION
2.) REFLECTIVE THOUGHT
3.) SPIRAL CURRICULUM

Question 11

WHAT IS ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION

Answer 11

ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION:

• JEAN PIAGET STATED THAT LEARNING INVOLVES TWO PROCESSES: ASSIMILATION (OLD IDEAS MEETING NEW SITUATIONS) & ACCOMMODATION (CHANGING THE OLD IDEAS TO MEET NEW SITUATIONS)
• RESOLVING THIS TENSION RESULTS IN INTELLECTUAL GROWTH

EX.. ASSIMILATION OCCURS WHEN A PILOT APPLIES EXISTING LANDING SKILLS TO SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT SCENARIOS, LIKE A CROSSWIND. ACCOMMODATION OCCURS WHEN THE PILOT MUST LEARN NEW TECHNIQUES, SUCH AS LANDING A DIFFERENT TYPE OF AIRCRAFT

Question 12

WHAT IS REFLECTIVE THOUGHT

Answer 12

REFLECTIVE THOUGHT..

INTRODUCED BY JOHN DEWEY, THE CONCEPT EMPHASIZES GAINING A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING THROUGH INTERPRETING & EVALUATING PAST EXPERIENCES

EX.. AFTER A CHALLENGING FLIGHT, A LEARNER ANALYZES THE PERFORMANCE, CONSIDERING WHAT WENT WELL, WHAT DID NOT, & HOW THEY CAN IMPROVE FUTURE FLIGHTS

Question 13

WHAT IS SPIRAL CURRICULUM

Answer 13

SPIRAL CURRICULUM..

• INVOLVES REVISITING BASIC IDEAS & PROGRESSIVELY BUILDING UPON THEM
• BRUNNER RECOMMENDED LEARNING FROM THE KNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN OR FROM THE CONCRETE TO THE ABSTRACT, AS HUMANS LEARN BEST BY RELATING NEW KNOWLEDGE TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

Question 14

WHAT ARE PERCEPTIONS?

Answer 14

• PERCEPTIONS BEGIN WHEN THE BRAIN RECEIVES INFORMATION THROUGH THE 5 SENSES; HOWEVER, PERCEIVING INVOLVES MORE THAN THE RECEPTION OF THE STIMULI
• PERCEPTIONS RESULT WHEN INDIVIDUALS ASSIGN MEANING TO THE SENSATIONS THEY EXPERIENCE

Question 15

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT PERCEPTION? (5 - PETS G)

Answer 15

1.) PHYSICAL ORGANISM: THE PHYSICAL BODY AFFECTS A PERSON’S ABILITY TO DETECT & INTERPRET INFORMATION - ABILITY TO SEE, HEAR, FEEL & RESPOND

2.) ELEMENT OF THREAT: EXCESSIVE FEAR INHIBITS LEARNING BY NARROWING ONE’S PERCEPTION OF THE THREAT, LIMITING ATTENTION, & REDUCING MENTAL SHARPNESS

3.) TIME & OPPORTUNITY: SUFFICIENT TIME & OPPORTUNITIES FOR LEARNING ARE CRUCIAL FOR DEVELOPING PERCEPTIONS & BUILDING UPON EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

4.) SELF-CONCEPT: LEARNERS WITH A POSITIVE SELF-IMAGE ARE MORE OPEN TO NEW EXPERIENCES, WHILE THOSE WITH A NEGATIVE SELF-IMAGE TEND TO RESIST FURTHER TRAINING

5.) GOALS & VALUES: A PERSON’S BELIEFS & VALUES SHAPE THEIR EXPERIENCE

Question 16

WHAT ARE INSIGHTS?

Answer 16

• INSIGHTS ARE THE GROUPING OF PERCEPTIONS INTO MEANINGFUL WHOLES
• INSIGHTS OCCUR WHEN SOMETHING IS UNDERSTOOD, SUCH AS DISCOVERING A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

Question 17

HOW SHOULD INSTRUCTORS HELP FOSTER THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSIGHTS FOR STUDENTS

Answer 17

TO FOSTER THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSIGHT, INSTRUCTORS SHOULD:

1.) POINT OUT THE RELATIONSHIPS OF PERCEPTIONS AS THEY OCCUR
2.) HELP LEARNERS ACQUIRE & MAINTAIN A FAVORABLE SELF-CONCEPT
3.) PROVIDE A SECURE & NON-THREATENING ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH TO LEARN

Question 18

WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE

Answer 18

KNOWLEDGE REFERS TO INFORMATION THAT HUMANS ARE CONSCIOUSLY AWARE OF & CAN ARTICULATE

Question 19

HOW IS KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED? (3 - MUA)

Answer 19

1.) MEMORIZATION: EXPOSURE TO A TOPIC THAT AMOUNTS TO MEMORIZING FACTS. THE LEARNER CANNOT SOLVE A PROBLEM OR PROVIDE AN EXPLANATION

2.) UNDERSTANDING: KNOWLEDGE IS ORGANIZED TO FORMULATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE THINGS MEMORIZED

3.) APPLICATION: THE KNOWLEDGE LEARNED CAN BE USED TO SOLVE PROBLEMS & MAKE DECISIONS

Question 20

HOW CAN INSTRUCTORS HELP LEARNERS ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE?

Answer 20

1.) ASK LEARNERS TO RECITE OR PRACTICE NEWLY ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE

2.) ASK QUESTIONS THAT PROBE LEARNER UNDERSTANDING & PROMPT THEM TO THINK ABOUT WHAT THEY HAVE LEARNED IN DIFFERENT WAYS

3.) PRESENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR LEARNERS TO APPLY WHAT THEY KNOW TO SOLVING PROBLEMS OR MAKING DECISIONS

Question 21

WHAT IS CONCEPT LEARNING?

Answer 21

• CONCEPT LEARNING IS BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT HUMANS TEND TO GROUP OBJECTS WITH SIMILAR ATTRIBUTES
• GENERALIZED CONCEPTS ARE MORE POWERFUL THAN FACTS BECAUSE INSTEAD OF DESCRIBING ONE THING, THEY DESCRIBE MANY THINGS AT ONCE

Question 22

WHAT ARE THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING? (6 - RIPEER)

Answer 22

1.) READINESS: PEOPLE LEARN BEST WHEN THEY ARE PHYSICALLY, MENTALLY, & EMOTIONALLY READY TO DO SO

2.) INTENSITY: A VIVID, DRAMATIC, OR EXITING LEARNING EXPERIENCE TEACHES MORE THAN A ROUTINE OR DULL EXPERIENCE

3.) PRIMACY: THINGS LEARNED FIRST CREATE STRONG, UNSHAKABLE IMPRESSIONS

4.) EFFECT: LEARNING IS STRENGTHENED WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH A PLEASANT EXPERIENCE AND WEAKENED WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH AN UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCE

5.) EXERCISE: THINGS MOST OFTEN REPEATED ARE BEST REMEMBERED

6.) RECENCY: THINGS MOST RECENTLY LEARNED ARE BEST REMEMBERED

Question 23

WHAT ARE BLOOM’S DOMAINS OF LEARNING

Answer 23

BLOOM’S DOMAINS OF LEARNING:

1.) COGNITIVE (THINKING)
2.) AFFECTIVE (FEELING)
3.) PSYCHOMOTOR (DOING)

Question 24

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN (THINKING)?

Answer 24

THE PURPOSE OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN IS TO PROMOTE HIGHER FORMS OF THINKING IN EDUCATION

Question 25

WHAT ARE THE 6 LEVELS OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN FROM LEAST TO MOST COMPLEX? (KCAASE)

Answer 25

THE 6 LEVELS: 1.) KNOWLEDGE: REMEMBERING INFORMATION (DEFINE, DESCRIBE) 2.) COMPREHENSION: UNDERSTANDING & EXPLAINING THE MEANING OF INFORMATION 3.) APPLICATION: USING ABSTRACTIONS IN CONCRETE SITUATIONS (ORGANIZE & SOLVE) 4.) ANALYSIS: BREAKING DOWN A WHOLE INTO COMPONENT PARTS (ANALYZE & COMPARE) 5.) SYNTHESIS: PUTTING PARTS TOGETHER TO FORM A NEW & INTEGRATED WHOLE (DEVELOP & COMPOSE) 6.) EVALUATION: MAKING JUDGMENTS ABOUT THE MERITS OF IDEAS, MATERIALS & PHENOMENA (EVALUATE & CRITIQUE)

Question 26

LEVELS OF LEARNING FOR THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN SIMPLIFIED INTO 4 PRACTICAL LEVELS, WHAT ARE THEY? REMEMBER.. RUAC

Answer 26

RUAC.. 1.) ROTE: THE ABILITY TO REPEAT BACK SOMETHING THAT ONE HAS BEEN TAUGHT WITHOUT UNDERSTANDING OR APPLYING IT (DEFINE) 2.) UNDERSTANDING: PERCEIVING & LEARNING WHAT HAS BEEN TAUGHT (EXPLAIN) 3.) APPLICATION: ACHIEVING THE SKILL TO APPLY WHAT HAS BEEN TAUGHT (SOLVE) 4.) CORRELATION: ASSOCIATING WHAT HAS BEEN TAUGHT WITH OTHER THINGS PREVIOUSLY LEARNED (COMPARE & CONTRAST)

Question 27

WHAT IS THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (FEELING) & THE 5 LEVELS? (RRVOC)

Answer 27

- THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN ADDRESSES A LEARNER’S ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING; INCLUDES FEELINGS, VALUES, & MOTIVATIONS THE 5 LEVELS: 1.) RECEIVING (AWARENESS): WILLINGNESS TO PAY ATTENTION (ASK) 2.) RESPONDING: REACTING VOLUNTARILY (WRITE) 3.) VALUING: ACCEPTING (SHARE) 4.) ORGANIZATION: REARRANGING OF VALUES (FORMULATE) 5.) CHARACTERIZATION: INCORPORATING VALUE INTO LIFE (ASSESS)

Question 28

WHAT IS THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (DOING) & THE 4 LEVELS? (OIPH)

Answer 28

- THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN ENCOMPASSES ACTIVITIES INVOLVING PHYSICAL MOVEMENT, COORDINATION, & MOTOR SKILLS THE 4 LEVELS: 1.) OBSERVATION: THE LEARNER OBSERVES A MORE EXPERIENCED PERSON PERFORM THE SKILL 2.) IMITATION: THE LEARNER ATTEMPTS TO COPY THE SKILL UNDER CAREFUL SUPERVISION 3.) PRACTICE: THE LEARNER TRIES A SPECIFIC ACTIVITY REPEATEDLY, POSSIBLY WITHOUT DIRECT OVERSIGHT 4.) HABIT: THE LEARNER CAN PERFORM THE SKILL IN TWICE THE TIME THAT IT TAKES THE INSTRUCTOR OR AN EXPERT TO PERFORM

Question 29

WHAT ARE THE 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING? (PEMA)

Answer 29

1.) LEARNING IS PURPOSEFUL: EACH LEARNER HAS SPECIFIC GOALS; INSTRUCTORS CAN INCREASE MOTIVATION BY RELATING THE MATERIAL TO THE LEARNER’S GOALS 2.) LEARNING IS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCE: LEARNING IS AN INDIVIDUAL PROCESS; THE INSTRUCTOR CANNOT DO IT FOR THE LEARNER 3.) LEARNING IS MULTIFACETED: THE LEARNING PROCESS MAY INVOLVE VERBAL, CONCEPTUAL, PERCEPTUAL, EMOTIONAL, & PROBLEM-SOLVING ELEMENTS SIMULTANEOUSLY 4.) LEARNING IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS: LEARNERS DO NOT SOAK UP KNOWLEDGE LIKE SPONGES ABSORB WATER

Question 30

WHAT IS SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING & WHEN TO CONDUCT SCENARIO BASED TRAINING

Answer 30

- SCENARIO BASED TRAINING IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD THAT USES A HIGHLY STRUCTURED SCRIPT OF REAL-WORLD EXPERIENCES TO ADDRESS AVIATION TRAINING OBJECTIVES IN AN OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT - SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING SHOULD BE INTEGRATED INTO ALL TRAINING STAGES, INCLUDING FLIGHT REVIEW

Question 31

WHEN SHOULD YOU SHIFT FROM TRADITIONAL TO SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING?

Answer 31

- EARLY IN TRAINING, TRADITIONAL (MANEUVER-BSED) TRAINING IS BENEFICIAL FOR BUILDING A STRONG FOUNDATION - LATER, INSTRUCTORS SHOULD BEGIN USING SCENARIOS THAT REQUIRE LEARNERS TO APPLY THEIR KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS

Question 32

WHAT ARE THE 3 STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT?

Answer 32

1.) COGNITIVE: THE INSTRUCTOR FIRST INTRODUCES THE LEARNER TO A BASIC SKILL; THE LEARNER MEMORIZES THE STEPS REQUIRED TO PERFORM THE SKILL (FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE) 2.) ASSOCIATIVE: A SKILL DEMONSTRATION IS NOT ENOUGH; PRACTICE IS NECESSARY TO COORDINATE MUSCLES WITH VISUAL & TACTILE SENSES 3.) AUTOMATIC RESPONSE: AS PROCEDURES BECOME AUTOMATIC, LESS ATTENTION IS REQUIRED TO CARRY THEM OUT. IT IS POSSIBLE TO DO OTHER THINGS SIMULTANEOUSLY. BY THIS STAGE THE SKILL PERFORMANCE IS RAPID & SMOOTH

Question 33

HOW DO SKILLS DEVELOP OVER TIME?

Answer 33

- WHEN LEARNING PHYSICAL SKILLS, PROGRESS TENDS TO FOLLOW WHAT IS KNOWN AS A POWER LAW OF PRACTICE - IT STATES THAT THE SPEED OF PERFORMANCE OF A TASK IMPROVES AS A POWER OF THE NUMBER OF TIMES THAT IT IS PERFORMED

Question 34

WHAT ARE LEARNING PLATEAUS?

Answer 34

- LEARNING IS RAPID IN THE EARLY STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT BUT TENDS TO SLOW DOWN AS SKILL INCREASES - THE LEARNING CURVE MAY LEVEL OFF, GIVING RISE TO A LEARNING PLATEAU; AT THIS POINT, LEARNERS MAY SEE PROGRESS AS CHALLENGING & UNLIKELY

Question 35

HOW CAN INSTRUCTORS HELP STUDENTS WHO ARE IN A LEARNING PLATEAU?

Answer 35

1.) EXPLAINING THAT LEARNING SELDOM PROCEEDS AT A CONSTANT PACE 2.) EXPLAINING THE REASON FOR THE LESSON & HOW IT APPLIES TO THE LEARNER 3.) REMINDING LEARNERS OF THEIR OWN STATED GOALS FOR SEEKING AVIATION TRAINING 4.) TEMPORARILY MOVING THE LEARNER TO A DIFFERENT PLACE IN THE SYLLABUS TO GIVE THE CURRENT TASK A BREAK

Question 36

WHY ARE KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS IMPORTANT?

Answer 36

- LEARNERS BENEFIT FROM KNOWING THEIR PROGRESS, ESPECIALLY IN COMPLEX SKILLS WHERE ERRORS AREN’T ALWAYS OBVIOUS - INSTRUCTORS SHOULD IDENTIFY MISTAKES EARLY, REINFORCE CORRECT PERFORMANCE, & PREVENT INCORRECT PRACTICE TO KEEP LEARNERS ON TRACK

Question 37

WHAT ARE THE 6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRACTICE? (DBRDMS)

Answer 37

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRACTICE: 1.) DELIBERATE: THE LEARNER PRACTICES SPECIFIC AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT & RECEIVES INSTRUCTOR FEEDBACK 2.) BLOCKED: PRACTICING THE SAME DRILL UNTIL THE MOVEMENT BECOMES AUTOMATIC 3.) RANDOM: MIXING UP THE SKILLS THROUGHOUT A PRACTICE SESSION 4.) DISTRIBUTED (SPACED): BREAKING UP A TRAINING ACTIVITY INTO SEVERAL SESSIONS OVER A LONGER PERIOD 5.) MASSED: PRACTICING IN LONG SESSIONS, SUCH AS WHEN CRAMMING FOR AN EXAM 6.) SCENARIO-BASED: PRACTICING IN A REAL-WORLD ENVIRONMENT

Question 38

WHAT ARE THE 5 ERRORS IN TASK MANAGEMENT (DIFIC)

Answer 38

1.) DISTRACTIONS: OCCURS WHEN AN UNEXPECTED EVENT MOMENTARILY DIVERTS ATTENTION 2.) INTERRUPTIONS: OCCUR WHEN A PILOT VOLUNTARILY STOPS PERFORMING ONE TASK TO COMPLETE A DIFFERENT ONE 3.) FIXATION: OCCURS WHEN A PILOT BECOMES ABSORBED IN PERFORMING ONE TASK TO THE EXCLUSION OF OTHER TASKS 4.) INATTENTION: OCCURS WHEN A PILOT IGNORES AN IMPORTANT TASK. SOMETIMES BY PRODUCT OF FIXATION 5.) COMPLACENCY: OVERCONFIDENCE THAT RESULTS FROM REPEATED EXPERIENCE WITH AN ACTIVITY

Question 39

WHAT ARE THE 2 TYPES OF ERRORS?

Answer 39

1.) SLIPS: ERRORS OF ACTION; THEY OCCUR WHEN A PERSON PLANS TO DO ONE THING BUT INADVERTENTLY DOES ANOTHER 2.) MISTAKES: ARE ERRORS OF THOUGHT; THEY OCCUR DUE TO POOR PLANNING, KNOWLEDGE GAPS, OR MISCONCEPTIONS IN UNDERSTANDING

Question 40

WHEN DOES A SLIP OCCUR?

Answer 40

A SLIP OCCURS WHEN A PERSON.. 1.) CONFUSES TWO SIMILAR THINGS 2.) FORGETS OR NEGLECTS TO DO SOMETHING. THIS IS CALLED A LAPSE 3.) ATTEMPTS TO PERFORM A ROUTINE PROCEDURE IN A DIFFERENT WAY, BUT OUT OF HABIT PERFORMS THE PROCEDURE IN THE USUAL WAY 4.) FEELS RUSHED. WHEN TIME PRESSURE IS INCREASED, MORE SLIPS ARE MADE

Question 41

WHAT ARE THE 6 METHODS FOR REDUCING ERRORS? (CURTDL)

Answer 41

METHODS FOR REDUCING ERRORS: 1.) CHECKING FOR ERRORS: ACTIVELY LOOKING FOR ERRORS (“CHECKING YOUR WORK”) REDUCES THEM 2.) USING REMINDERS: ERRORS ARE REDUCED WHEN VISIBLE REMINDERS SUCH AS CHECKLISTS ARE USED 3.) RAISING AWARENESS: AWARENESS SHOULD BE INCREASED WHEN OPERATING IN CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ERRORS ARE KNOWN TO HAPPEN OR WHEN DEFENSES AGAINST ERRORS ARE COMPROMISED 4.) TAKING TIME: ERRORS CAN OFTEN BE REDUCED BY WORKING DELIBERATELY & AT A COMFORTABLE PACE 5.) DEVELOPING ROUTINES: USING STANDARDIZED OPERATING PROCEDURES (SOPS) REDUCES ERRORS 6.) LEARNING & PRACTICING: HIGHER KNOWLEDGE & SKILL LEVELS ARE ASSOCIATED WIHT FEWER & LESS SIGNIFICANT ERRORS

Question 42

WHAT IS MEMORY AND WHAT ARE THE 3 TYPES OF MEMORY?

Answer 42

- MEMORY IS THE ABILITY TO ENCODE, STORE, & RETRIEVE INFORMATION 3 TYPES OF MEMORY: 1.) SENSORY MEMORY 2.) SHORT-TERM MEMORY 3.) LONG-TERM MEMORY

Question 43

WHAT IS SENSORY MEMORY?

Answer 43

- SENSORY MEMORY RECEIVES INITIAL STIMULI FROM THE ENVIRONMENT & PROCESSES THEM - THROUGH SELECTIVE ATTENTION, A PERSON CAN ATTEND TO ONE OR A FEW SENSORY INPUTS WHILE IGNORING OTHERS - SENSORY REGISTER IS THE PART OF THE BRAIN THAT FILTERS STIMULI IN THE SENSORY MEMORY - INFORMATION DEEMED RELEVANT BY THE INDIVIDUAL IS TRANSMITTED WITHIN SECONDS TO SHORT-TERM MEMORY UNIMPORTANT INFORMATION IS DISCARDED

Question 44

WHAT IS SHORT-TERM MEMORY & THE GOAL OF STM?

Answer 44

- SHORT-TERM MEMORY IS WHERE CONSCIOUS THOUGHT TAKES PLACE - STM CAN ONLY HOLD A SMALL AMOUNT OF INFORMATION, USUALLY ABOUT SEVEN BITS OF DATA - THE GOAL OF STM IS TO STORE INFORMATION LONG ENOUGH FOR IT TO BE PROCESSED - INFORMATION MUST BE TRANSFERRED INTO LONG-TERM MEMORY TO BE RETAINED FOR EXTENDED PERIODS

Question 45

WHAT ARE THE 3 BASIC OPERATIONS OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY?

Answer 45

3 BASIC OPERATIONS OF STM: 1.) ICONIC MEMORY: THE BRIEF MEMORY OF VISUAL IMAGES 2.) ACOUSTIC MEMORY: THE BRIEF MEMORY OF SOUNDS (CAN BE HELD LONGER THAN ICONIC 3.) WORKING MEMORY: MEMORY THAT ALLOWS STORED INFORMATION TO BE MANIPULATED

Question 46

WHAT IS LONG-TERM MEMORY & THE LIMITATIONS OF LTM?

Answer 46

- LONG-TERM MEMORY IS THE RELATIVELY PERMANENT STORAGE OF UNLIMITED INFORMATION - STORING INFORMATION IN THE LTM INVOLVES ENCODING, THE CONSOLIDATION OF INFORMATION - CONNECTIONS ARE MADE BETWEEN OLD & NEW INFORMATION TO AID IN LATER RECALL - LTM IS SUBJECT TO LIMITATIONS, SUCH AS FORGETTING, BIASES, & PERSONAL INACCURACIES - INFORMATION IS RECONSTRUCTED RATHER THAN PURELY RECALLED

Question 47

WHAT ARE THE 2 TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY?

Answer 47

1.) DECLARATIVE (FACTS & EVENTS): KNOWLEDGE ABOUT “WHO/WHAT/WHEN/WHERE” QUESTIONS 2.) PROCEDURAL (SKILLS & HABITS): KNOWING HOW TO DO SOMETHING

Question 48

WHAT IS FORGETTING

Answer 48

FORGETTING INVOLVES A FAILURE IN MEMORY RETRIEVAL, WHICH MAY BE DUE TO INFORMATION DECAY OR OVERWRITING

Question 49

WHAT ARE THE 4 THEORIES ON WHY PEOPLE FORGET? (FIRR)

Answer 49

1.) FADING: IF A PERSON FORGETS INFORMATION NOT USED FOR AN EXTENDED PERIOD, IT FADES AWAY OR DECAYS 2.) INTERFERENCE: PEOPLE FORGET SOMETHING BECAUSE A PARTICULAR EXPERIENCE OVERSHADOWED IT OR THE LEARNING OF SIMILAR THINGS HAS INTERVENED 3.) RETRIEVAL FAILURE: THE INABILITY TO RETRIEVE INFORMATION; “TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE” PHENOMENON 4.) REPRESSION OR SUPPRESSION: IN REPRESSION OR SUPPRESSION, A MEMORY IS PUSHED OUT OF REACH BECAUSE THE INDIVIDUAL DOES NOT WANT TO REMEMBER ITS ASSOCIATED FEELINGS

Question 50

HOW DOES USAGE AFFECT MEMORY?

Answer 50

THE ABILITY TO RETRIEVE KNOWLEDGE OR SKILLS FROM MEMORY IS BASED ON FREQUENCY (HOW OFTEN THE KNOWLEDGE IS USED) & RECENCY (WHEN THE KNOWLEDGE WAS LAST USED)

Question 51

FREQUENCY & RECENCY TOGETHER & INDIVIDUALLY?

Answer 51

1.) FREQUENCY & RECENCY: KNOWLEDGE IS LIKELY TO BE RETRIEVED EASILY & QUICKLY; THIS IS IDEAL 2.) FREQUENCY ONLY: KNOWLEDGE IS LIKELY TO BE RETRIEVED SLOWLY OR NOT AT ALL; REHEARSAL PRACTICE CAN REFRESH THE MEMORY 3.) RECENCY ONLY: KNOWLEDGE IS VULNERABLE TO FORGETTING; REGULAR REHEARSAL IS NEEDED TO BUILD UP ITS FREQUENCY

Question 52

WHAT ARE THE 6 PRINCIPLES OF RETENTION (FLAMMP)

Answer 52

6 PRINCIPLES OF RETENTION: 1.) FAVORABLE ATTITUDES AID RETENTION: PEOPLE LEARN & REMEMBER WHAT THEY WISH TO KNOW 2.) LEARNING WITH ALL SENSES IS MOST EFFECTIVE: WHEN SEVERAL SENSES RESPOND TOGETHER, A FULLER UNDERSTANDING & A HIGHER CHANCE OF RECALL ARE ACHIEVED 3.) ASSOCIATION PROMOTES RECALL: EACH BIT OF INFORMATION OR ACTION ASSOCIATED WITH SOMETHING TO BE LEARNED TENDS TO FACILITATE THE LEARNER’S LATER RECALL OF IT 4.) MEANINGFUL REPETITION AIDS RECALL: EACH REPETITION ALLOWS THE LEARNER TO GAIN MORE ACCURATE PERCEPTION OF THE SUBJECT TO BE LEARNED 5.) MNEMONICS: USES A PATTERN OF LETTERS, IDEAS, VISUAL IMAGES, OR ASSOCIATIONS TO ASSIST IN REMEMBERING INFORMATION 6.) PRAISE STIMULATES REMEMBERING: RESPONSES THAT GIVE A PLEASURABLE RETURN TEND TO BE REPEATED

Question 53

WHAT IS TRANSFER OF LEARNING?

Answer 53

LEARNERS MAY EITHER BE AIDED OR HINDERED BY THINGS LEARNED PREVIOUSLY

Question 54

WHAT IS POSITIVE VS NEGATIVE TRANSFER?

Answer 54

1.) POSITIVE TRANSFER: WHEN LEARNING ONE SKILL AIDS IN LEARNING ANOTHER SKILL 2.) NEGATIVE TRANSFER: WHEN A PREVIOUSLY LEARNED SKILL INTERFERES WITH LEARNING A NEW SKILL EX.. OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER IS TURNING THE AILERON CONTROLS TO STEER ON THE GROUND DUE TO THE EXPERIENCE OF DRIVING A CAR

Question 55

WHAT IS NEAR VS FAR TRANSFER?

Answer 55

1.) NEAR TRANSFER: WHEN LEARNERS APPLY SKILLS LEARNED IN ONE AREA TO A SIMILAR SITUATION 2.) FAR TRANSFER: WHEN LEARNERS APPLY SKILLS LEARNED IN ONE AREA TO A DIFFERENT CONTEXT

Question 56

WHAT ARE THE 5 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING TRANSFER (DDASH)

Answer 56

1.) DEPTH-OF-PROCESSING EFFECT: THE MORE DEEPLY HUMANS THINK ABOUT WHAT THEY HAVE LEARNED, THE MORE LIKELY THEY CAN RETRIEVE IT LATER 2.) DURING TRAINING: LEARNERS MUST PRACTICE WHAT THEY HAVE LEARNED TO MAKE IT AVAILABLE FOR RECALL 3.) AFTER TRAINING: CONTINUED PRACTICE IS THE ONLY MEANS OF RETAINING WHAT HAS BEEN LEARNED 4.) SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE: THE AVIATION INSTRUCTOR IS THE LEARNER’S PRIMARY SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE, BUT THE INSTRUCTOR ALSO RECOMMENDS OTHER SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE LIKE BOOKS, VIDEOS, PICTURES, DIAGRAMS & CHARTS 5.) HABIT FORMATION: IT IS ESSENTIAL TO FORM CORRECT HABIT PATTERNS FROM THE BEGINNING