1
Q
What are eukaryotic cells ?
Cell Structure
A
Complex cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. These are plant and animal cells. (agal cells and fungal cells)
2
Q
Describe agal cells.
Cell Structure
A
They are a lot like plant cells - they have the same organelles. they can be single celled or multicellular.
3
Q
Describe fungal cells.
Cell Structure
A
They’re like plant cells, however their cell walls are made from chitin not cellulose and they don’t have chloroplast because they don’t photosynthesise. This includes mushrooms and yeast.
4
Q
What is the function of cell surface membranes ?
Cell Structure
A
- They regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
- They also have receptor molecules on it which allow it to respond to chemicals like hormones.
- Act as a barrier between the cell and its environment.
5
Q
Describe the properties and functions of a nucleus.
Cell Structure
A
- A large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane) which contains pores.
- The nucleus contains chromosomes which are made from protein bound linear DNA
- it also contains one or more nucleolus.
- The nucleus controls the cells activity’s by controlling the transcription of DNA
- DNA contains instructions to make proteins.
- The pores allow substances (like RNA) to move between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
- The nucleus make ribosomes
6
Q
Describe the properties and functions of mitochondria.
Cell Structure
A
- they’re usually oval shaped and have a double membrane, the inner folds to form a structure called cristae inside the matrix, which contains enzymes involved in respiration.
- The site of aerobic respiration, where ATP is produced.
- They’re found in large numbers in cells that are very active and need lots of energy.
7
Q
Describe the properties and functions of chloroplasts.
Cell Structure
A
- A small, flattened structure found in plant and agal cells.
- It’s surrounded by a double membrane and also had membranes inside called thylakoid membranes, these are stacked in some parts of the chloroplast to form grana.
- Grana are linked together by lamellae - thin flat peices of thylakoid membrane).
- grana contain chlorophyll
- The site where photosynthesis occurs, some occurs in the grana and some in the stroma (thick fluid).
8
Q
Describe the properties and functions of golgi apparatus.
Cell Structure
A
- A group of fluid-filled membrane-bound flattened sacs. Vesicles are often found at the edges of the sacs.
- It processes and packages new lipids and proteins.
- It also makes lysosomes.
9
Q
Describe the properties and functions of golgi vesicles.
Cell Structure
A
- They’re small fluid filled sacs in the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane and produced by the golgi apparatus.
- they store the lipids and proteins that are produced and packaged by the golgi apparatus, and transport them out of the cell.
10
Q
Describe the properties and functions of lysosomes.
Cell Structure
A
- A round organelle surrounded by a membrane with no clear internal structure.
- it’s a type of golgi vesicle and contains digestive enzyme called lysozymes.
- These are separate from the cytoplasm by the surrounding membrane and can be used to digest invading cells or break down worn out components of the cell.
11
Q
Describe the properties and functions of ribosomes.
Cell Structure
A
- They’re a very small organelle that either floats free in the cytoplasm or are attached to the Rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- it’s made up of proteins and RNA.
- it’s not surrounded by a membrane.
- it’s the site of protein synthesis.
12
Q
Describe the properties and functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell Structure
A
- a system of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space.
- the surface is covered in ribosomes.
- it folds and processes proteins that have been made in the ribosomes.
13
Q
Describe the properties and functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell Structure
A
- They’re a system of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space.
- synthesises and processes lipids.
14
Q
describe the properties and functions of a permanent cell vacuole.
Cell Structure
A
- A membrane bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. It contains cell sap, a weak solution of sugar and salts.
- The surrounding membrane is called the tonoplast. It helps maintain the pressure inside the cell and keeps it rigid shape.
- It prevents plants from wilting. involved in the isolation of unwanted chemicals in the cell.
15
Q
What are prokaryotic cells ?
Cell Structure
A
cells with no membrane bound organelles and no true nucleus.
16
Q
What size are the ribosomes in bacteria ?
Cell Structure
A
70s
17
Q
What’s the role of the slime capsule ?
Cell Structure
A
Helps to protect the bacteria from an attack by cells of the immune system.
18
Q
What’s the properties and function of the cell wall in bacteria ?
Cell Structure
A
- supports the cell and prevents it from changing shape.
- made out of a polymer called murein, a glycoprotein.
19
Q
What’s the properties and functions of a plasma membrane in bacteria ?
Cell Structure
A
is made mainly of lipids and proteins. control the movement of substances in and out of cells.
20
Q
what’s the DNA in bacteria ?
Cell Structure
A
a single circular loop of dna floating in the cytoplasm. not attached to any histone proteins
21
Q
What are plasmids.
Cell Structure
A
- Small loops of DNA they contain the genes for antibiotic resistance and can be passed between prokaryotes.
- they’re not always present.
22
Q
What’s a flagellum?
Cell Structure
A
- a long hair like structure that rotates to make the bacteria cell move.
- not all cells have them
23
Q
Are viruses alive cells ?
Cell Structure
A
No, they’re particles.
24
Q
in a virus what does the core of genetic material contain ?
Cell Structure
A
DNA or RNA
25
What’s the capsid of a virus ?
## Footnote
Cell Structure
The protein coat around the core of genetic material.
26
what are attachment proteins in a virus ?
## Footnote
Cell Structure
they stick out from the edge of the capsid and bind to receptors on the suitable host cell
27
Describe the processing and secretion of hormones in a eukaryotic cell
## Footnote
Cell Structure
* The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins that have been made in the ribosomes to the golgi apparatus.
* at the golgi apparatus the proteins are processed and packaged and then sent in the golgi vesicles to be secreted at the cell surface membrane.
28
what’s the protein coat around the core of the virus called ?
## Footnote
Cell Structure
capsid
29
How does the capsid help the viruses.
## Footnote
Cell Structure
protects it from attack from immune system cells of the person it’s infecting.
30
Describe the role of one named organelle in digesting bacteria.
## Footnote
Cell structure
lysosomes fuse with vesicles and release hydrolytic enzymes
31
Suggest one explanation for the faster rate of plasmid replication in cells
growing in a culture with a high amino acid concentration.
## Footnote
Cell structure
* More amido acids an be used in protein synthesis so enzymes such as DNA polyermase can be made which are used in DNA replication.
* Amino acids are used in respiration so more energy for DNA replication to occur
32
What’s the equation for magnification ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
magnification = image size / real size
33
What’s the definition of magnification ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
how many times bigger the image is than the real size of the specimen
34
What’s the definition of resolution ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
How well a microscope can distinguish between two points that are close together.
35
name the conversions for mm um and nm
## Footnote
Microscopy
mm x 1000 um x1000 nm
nm /1000 um /1000 mm
36
How does an optical microscope work ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
It uses light to form and image
37
give the advantages and disadvantages of optical microscopes
## Footnote
Microscopy
* They have a lower resolution of 0.2 nanometres, meaning smaller organelles cannot be seen such as ribosomes.
* they have a lower maximum magnification of x1500.
* Preparation is simple and quick. natural colour of the specimen can be seen.
* living and dead tissues can be seen.
38
how do electron microscopes work ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
they use electrons to form an image
39
Give the advantages and disadvantages of electron microscopes.
## Footnote
Microscopy
* they have a higher resolution of 0.0002 nanometres meaning images can be seen in more detail and smaller organelles can be seen.
* They have a higher maximum magnification of X500000.
* preparation is lengthy and complex.
* can only view dead specimen as in vacuum.
* artefacts are more likely to occur.
* image occurs in black and white. more expensive
40
how do transmission electron microscopes work ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
They use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons on the specimen and transmit through the specimen. the denser area of the specimen absorbs more electrons causing it to appear darker on the image.
41
Give the advantages and disadvantages of the TEM.
## Footnote
Microscopy
* They have a high resolution so you can see internal structure of the organelles like chloroplast.
* they can only be used on thin specimen
* create a 2D image.
42
How do scanning electron microscopes work ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
They scan a beam of electrons across the specimen. this knocks off electrons from the specimen which are gathered in a cathode ray tube to form an a image.
43
How would you prepare a specimen ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
1. Add a drop of water to a slide.
1. Use tweezers to add a thin layer of the specimen to the slide on top of the water drop.
1. Add a drop of stain to the slide to highlight the structures of the specimen.
1. Add the cover slip by standing it upright on the slide then carefully tilting and lowering it so it covers the specimen, trying not to get any air bubbles.
44
How would you use an optical microscope?
## Footnote
Microscopy
1. clip the prepared slide onto the stage.
1. select the lowest powered objective lens.
1. use the coarse adjustment knob to move the stage just below the objective lens. then use it to lower the stage downwards until the image is roughly focused
1. use the fine adjustment knob until you get a clear image.
1. if a higher magnification is needed select a higher powered objective lens and refocus the image.
45
What are artefacts ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
Things that you can see down the microscope that aren’t apart of the specimen. eg. air bubbles dust and fingerprints. they’re more common in electron microscopes due to the lengthily and complex preparation.
46
Give the advantages and disadvantages of SEM
## Footnote
Microscopy
* the image can be 3D.
* thicker specimen can be used
* they give lower resolution then TEM.
47
Why can an optical microscope not view internal details of cells ?
## Footnote
Microscopy
The resolution is too low because he wavelength of light is too long.
48
How does cell fractionation work ?
## Footnote
Studying cells
1.Homogenisation: Breaking up the cell can be down by grinding the cells up in a blender. This breaks up the plasma membrane and releases the organelles into a solution. The solution is kept ice cols to reduce enzyme activity that would break down the cell. The solution also must be isotonic - meaning that it should have the same amount of concentration of chemicals as the cell being broken down, this means water potential isn't affected so the cell doesn't burst or shrivel by osmosis. A buffer solution is used to maintain pH.
2.Filtration: removing large debris: the homogenate is filtered through a gauze to separate any large cell/tissue debris. The organelles are much smaller so they pass though.
3.Ultracentrifugation:serparating the organelles: The cell fragments are poured in a test tube and put in a centrifuge which spins at a low speed. The heaviest organelle, like nuclei, form a pellet at the bottom. The supernatant is drained off and placed in another tube, then placed in a centrifuge that spins at a higher speed. This continues.
49
What's the order of organelle separation during cell fractionation ?
## Footnote
Studying cells
nuclei
mitochondria
chloroplast
lysosomes
endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
50
what’s mitosis ?
## Footnote
Cell division
the process of a parent cell dividing to produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
51
What’s mitosis needed for ?
## Footnote
Cell division
the growth of multicellular organisms and the repair of damaged tissue
52
What are the stages of the cell cycle ?
## Footnote
Cell division
INTERPHASE:
gap phase 1: cell grows and new organelles and proteins are made
synthesis: cell replicates it’s DNA ready to divide by mitosis.
gap phase 2: cell keeps growing and proteins needed for cell division are made.
the cell cycle begins and ends with mitosis.
53
What happens during interphase ?
## Footnote
Cell division
* The cell carries out normal functions but also prepares to divide.
* the cells DNA is unravelled and replicated to double its genetic content.
* the organelles are also replicated
* it’s ATP contents is increased (ATP provided the energy for cell division).
54
Describe prophase
## Footnote
Cell division
* The chromosomes condense getting shorter and fatter.
* Tiny bundles of proteins called centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell forming a network of fibres called spindle fibres.
* the nuclear envelope disintegrated and the nucleolus disappears.
55
Describe metaphase
## Footnote
Cell division
The chromosomes line up alone the equator of the cell and become attached to the spindle fibres by their centromere.
56
Describe anaphase
## Footnote
Cell division
* The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister chromatids.
* The spindles contract pulling chromatids to opposite ends of the cell.
* this makes the chromatids appear in a v shape.
57
Describe telophase.
## Footnote
Cell division
* The chromatids reach the opposite ends of the on the spindle fibres.
* they uncoil and become long and thin again.
* they’re now chromosomes.
* A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes and there is now 2 nuclei.
58
describe cytokinesis.
## Footnote
Cell division
The cytoplasm divides. forming 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original cell and each other.
59
how would you work out the time taken for cells to divide ?
## Footnote
Cell division
number of cells in the phase / number of cells X100
60
what is cancer caused by ?
## Footnote
Cell division
* uncontrolled cell division.
* Mitosis and cell cycle are controlled by genes, if there are mutations in these genes the cells will grow out of control.
* the cells keep dividing and a tumour forms which invades surrounding tissues.
61
Why are cancer treatments more likely to kill cancer cells than normal body cells ?
## Footnote
Cell division
cancer cells divide more frequently.
62
Describe how the Gap phase 1 can be targeted by drugs to treat cancer
## Footnote
Cell division
* Some chemical drugs (chemotherapy) prevent the synthesis of enzymes that are needed for DNA replication.
* this means the cell is unable to enter the synthesis stage and the cell is forced to kill itself, preventing the growth of a tumour
63
Describe how the synthesis phase can be targeted by drugs to treat cancer
## Footnote
Cell division
* radiation and some drugs cause damage to DNA at several points in the cell cycle the DNA is checked for damage
* if severe damage is detected then the cell will kill itself - preventing the growth of tumour.
64
how do you work out mitotic index
## Footnote
Cell division
number of cells with visible chromosomes / total number of cells observed
65
What’s the main difference between DNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
##Footnote
Cell structure
Eukaryote is linear
Prokaryote is circular.
66
in a photograph how is it obvious that a cell is undergoing mitosis
chromosomes are visible because they have condensed
chromosomes are made of 2 chromatids due to dna replication
not arranged in homologous pairs and they would be in meiosis
67
what are homologous pairs
two chromosomes that carry the same genes
68
during a mitosis practical why would you use hydrochloric acid
stop mitosis
69
during a mitosis practical why would you press down with the cover slip
get a single layer of cells so light can pass through
70
during a mitosis practical why would you use a stain
make chromosomes visible
Biology
flashcards
Decks in class (20)
# Cards
-
Topic 1 - Biological molecules92
-
Topic 1 - More Biological molecules49
-
Topic 2 -Cell structure70
-
Topic 2 -Cell Membranes38
-
Topic 2 - The immune system43
-
Topic 3 - Gas exchange33
-
Topic 3 - Transport systems in Animals61
-
Topic 3 - Transport Systems in Plants22
-
Topic 4 - Genetic information31
-
Topic 4 - Genetic variance and biodiversity63
-
Topic 5 - Photosynthesis and Respiration40
-
Topic 5 - Energy Transfer in Ecosystems38
-
Topic 6 - Stimuli and Response52
-
Topic 6 - Nervous Coordination51
-
Topic 6 - Homeostasis35
-
Topic 7 - Genetics22
-
Topic 7 - Populations and Evolution41
-
Topic 8 - Mutations and Gene Expression40
-
Topic 8 - genome project and gene technologies47
-
Statistics And Maths14
