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1
Q

Breast carcinoma

A

Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, or a red scaly patch of skin.
In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin.

Risk factors for developing breast cancer include: female sex, obesity, lack of physical exercise, drinking alcohol, hormone replacement therapy during menopause, ionizing radiation, early age at first menstruation, having children late or not at all, and older age
About 5–10% of cases are due to genes inherited from a person’s parents, including BRCA1 and BRCA2 among others.

Breast cancer most commonly develops in cells from the lining of milk ducts and the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers developing from the ducts are known as ductal carcinomas, while those developing from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas.
Some cancers develop from pre-invasive lesions such as ductal carcinoma in situ.

The diagnosis of breast cancer is confirmed by taking a biopsy of the concerning lump. Once the diagnosis is made, further tests are done to determine if the cancer has spread beyond the breast and which treatments it may respond to.

The medications tamoxifen or raloxifene may be used in an effort to prevent breast cancer in those who are at high risk of developing it.
Surgical removal of both breasts is another useful preventative measure in some high risk women.
In those who have been diagnosed with cancer, a number of treatments may be used, including surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and targeted therapy.

2
Q

Lung cancer

A

(carcinoma of the lung or pulmonary carcinoma)

If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung by process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the body. Most cancers that start in the lung, known as primary lung cancers, are carcinomas that derive from epithelial cells. The main primary types are small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) and non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC).

The most common symptoms are coughing (including coughing up blood), weight loss, shortness of breath, and chest pains.

The vast majority (80–90%) of cases of lung cancer are due to long-term exposure to tobacco smoke.
About 10–15% of cases occur in people who have never smoked. These cases are often caused by a combination of genetic factors and exposure to radon gas, asbestos, or other forms of air pollution, including second-hand smoke.

Lung cancer may be seen on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) scans. The diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy which is usually performed by bronchoscopy or CT-guidance.

Treatment and long-term outcomes depend on the type of cancer, the stage (degree of spread), and the person’s overall health, measured by performance status. Common treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. NSCLC is sometimes treated with surgery, whereas SCLC usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

3
Q

Prostate cancer

A

Most prostate cancers are slow growing; however, some grow relatively fast. The cancer cells may spread from the prostate to other parts of the body, particularly the bones and lymph nodes.
It may initially cause no symptoms. In later stages it can cause difficulty urinating, blood in the urine, or pain in the pelvis, back or when urinating.

A disease known as benign prostatic hyperplasia may produce similar symptoms. Other late symptoms may include feeling tired due to low levels of red blood cells.

Factors that increase the risk of prostate cancer include: older age, a family history of the disease, and race. About 99% of cases occur in those over the age of 50.

Prostate cancer is diagnosed by biopsy. Medical imaging may then be done to determine if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body

Prostate cancer screening is controversial. Prostate-specific antigen testing increases cancer detection but does not decrease mortality.

Many cases can be safely followed with active surveillance or watchful waiting. Other treatments may include a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy or chemotherapy. When it only occurs inside the prostate it may be curable. In those in whom the disease has spread to the bones, pain medications, bisphosphonates and targeted therapy, among others may be useful.

4
Q

Testicular cancer

A

one of the highest cure rates of all cancers with an average five-year survival rate of 95%.

It is the most common cancer in males aged 20–39 years, the period when it is most common to start, and is rarely seen before the age of 15 years.

The most common symptom is a painless lump or swelling in the testicles. Other symptoms can include:
a dull ache in the scrotum
a feeling of heaviness in the scrotum

The different types of testicular cancer are classified by the type of cells the cancer first begins in.
The most common type of testicular cancer is known as ‘germ cell testicular cancer’, which accounts for around 95% of all cases. Germ cells are a type of cell that the body uses to help create sperm.
There are two main subtypes of germ cell testicular cancer:
seminomas, which account for around 40-45% of all germ cell testicular cancers
non-seminomas, which account for around 40-45% of all germ cell testicular cancers
Seminomas and non-seminomas tend to respond well to chemotherapy.

Less common types of testicular cancer include:
Leydig cell tumours, which account for around 1-3% of cases
Sertoli cell tumours, which account for around 1% of cases
Lymphoma, which accounts for around 4% of cases

5
Q

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

A

(Hodgkin’s disease)
a type of lymphoma, in which cancer originates from white blood cells called lymphocytes.

A history of infectious mononucleosis due to infection by Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) may increase risk of HL, but the precise contribution of Epstein–Barr virus remains largely unknown.

Hodgkin lymphoma is characterized by the orderly spread of disease from one lymph node group to another and by the development of systemic symptoms with advanced disease.

When Hodgkins cells are examined microscopically, multinucleated Reed–Sternberg cells (RS cells) are the characteristic histopathologic finding.

Hodgkin lymphoma may be treated with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, with the choice of treatment depending on the age and sex of the patient and the stage, bulk, and histological subtype of the disease.

The disease occurrence shows two peaks: the first in young adulthood (age 15–35) and the second in those over 55 years old.

6
Q

Oesophageal carcinoma

A

Symptoms often include difficulty in swallowing and weight loss. Other symptoms may include pain when swallowing, a hoarse voice, enlarged lymph nodes (glands) around the collarbone, a dry cough, and possibly coughing up or vomiting blood.

The two main sub-types of the disease are esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma (often abbreviated to ESCC), which is more common in the developing world, and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), which is more common in the developed world.

A number of less common types also occur:
Squamous-cell carcinoma arises from the epithelial cells that line the esophagus.
Adenocarcinoma arises from glandular cells present in the lower third of the esophagus, often where they have already transformed to intestinal cell type (a condition known as Barrett’s esophagus).

The most common causes of the squamous-cell type are: tobacco, alcohol, very hot drinks, and a poor diet. The most common causes of the adenocarcinoma type are smoking tobacco, obesity, and acid reflux.

The disease is diagnosed by biopsy done by an endoscope (a fiberoptic camera).

Prevention includes stopping smoking and eating a healthy diet.

Treatment is based on the cancer’s stage and location, together with the person’s general condition and individual preferences. Small localized squamous-cell cancers may be treated with surgery alone with the hope of a cure. In most other cases, chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy is used along with surgery. Larger tumors may have their growth slowed with chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Outcomes are related to the extent of the disease and other medical conditions, but generally tend to be fairly poor, as diagnosis is often late.

7
Q

Chronic myeloid leukaemia

A

(chronic granulocytic leukemia (CGL))
A cancer of the white blood cells.
It is a form of leukemia characterized by the increased and unregulated growth of predominantly myeloid cells in the bone marrow and the accumulation of these cells in the blood.
CML is a clonal bone marrow stem cell disorder in which a proliferation of mature granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils) and their precursors is found. It is a type of myeloproliferative disease associated with a characteristic chromosomal translocation called the Philadelphia chromosome.
CML is now largely treated with targeted drugs called tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) which have led to dramatically improved long-term survival rates since the introduction of the first such agent in 2001. These drugs have revolutionized treatment of this disease and allow most patients to have a good quality of life when compared to the former chemotherapy drugs.

8
Q

Cervical carcinoma

A

Due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body.
Early on there are typically no symptoms.
Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection appears to be involved in the development of more than 90% of cases;most people who have had HPV infections, however, do not develop cervical cancer.
Other risk factors include smoking, a weak immune system, birth control pills, starting sex at a young age and having many sexual partners, but these are less important.
typically develops from precancerous changes over 10 to 20 years.

About 90% are squamous cell carcinomas, 10% are adenocarcinoma

Diagnosis is typically by cervical screening followed by a biopsy. Medical imaging is then done to determine whether or not the cancer has spread.

HPV vaccines protect against between two and seven high-risk strains of this family of viruses and may prevent up to 90% of cervical cancers.

Other methods of prevention include: never having sex or having few sexual partners and the use of condoms.

Treatment of cervical cancer may consist of some combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy

9
Q

Ovarian cancer

A

When metastasis begins, symptoms may be vague or not apparent, but they become more noticeable as the cancer progresses. These symptoms may include bloating, pelvic pain, and abdominal swelling, among others.
Common areas to which the cancer may spread include the lining of the abdomen, lymph nodes, lungs, and liver.

The risk of ovarian cancer increases in people who have ovulated more over their lifetime. This includes those who have never had children, those who begin ovulation at a younger age or reach menopause at an older age.
Other risk factors include hormone therapy after menopause, fertility medication, and obesity.
Factors that decrease risk include hormonal birth control, tubal ligation, and breast feeding.
About 10% of cases are related to inherited genetic risk; women with the gene mutations BRCA1 or BRCA2 have about a 50% chance of developing the disease.

The most common type of ovarian cancer, comprising more than 95% of cases, is ovarian carcinoma. There are five main subtypes of ovarian carcinoma, of which high-grade serous is most common. These tumors are believed to start in the cells covering the ovaries, though some may form at the Fallopian tubes. Less common types of ovarian cancer include germ cell tumors and sex cord stromal tumors.

A diagnosis of ovarian cancer is confirmed through a biopsy of tissue, usually removed during surgery.

Screening is not recommended in women who are at average risk, as evidence does not support a reduction in death and the high rate of false positive tests may lead to unneeded surgery, which is accompanied by its own risks.
Those at very high risk may have their ovaries removed as a preventive measure.

If caught and treated in an early stage, ovarian cancer may be curable. Treatment usually includes some combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
Outcomes depend on the extent of the disease and the subtype of the cancer present.

10
Q

Endometrial cancer

A

The first sign is most often vaginal bleeding not associated with a menstrual period.
Other symptoms include pain with urination or sexual intercourse, or pelvic pain.
Endometrial cancer occurs most commonly after menopause.

Approximately 40% of cases are related to obesity.
Endometrial cancer is also associated with excessive estrogen exposure, high blood pressure and diabetes.
Whereas taking estrogen alone increases the risk of endometrial cancer, taking both estrogen and progesterone in combination, as in most birth control pills, decreases the risk.
Between two and five percent of cases are related to genes inherited from the parents.
The most frequent type of endometrial cancer is endometrioid carcinoma, which accounts for more than 80% of cases.

Endometrial cancer is commonly diagnosed by endometrial biopsy or by taking samples during a procedure known as dilation and curettage. A pap smear is not typically sufficient to show endometrial cancer.
Regular screening in those at normal risk is not called for.

The leading treatment option for endometrial cancer is abdominal hysterectomy, together with removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries on both sides, called a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.
In more advanced cases, radiation therapy, chemotherapy or hormone therapy may also be recommended. If the disease is diagnosed at an early stage, the outcome is favorable