Tories
One of the two political groups in the British Parliament, the Tories largely dominated the government and did not want to change the political system. They responded to the falling agriculture prices by passing the Corn law act of 1815 which led to high taxes.
Whigs
One of the two political groups in British Parliament, the Whigs were supported by the Industrial Middle Class. The Whigs also passed the Reform Act of 1832 after they realized the need to axr on the demands of the upper wealthy class.
Burschenschaften-
The Burschenschafte was a student society dedicated to gaining a free and united Germany. They gathered in groups and did radical actions to get their point across including assassinating a playwright, leading Metternich to publish the Karlsbad decree.
Greek revolt-
In Greece the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turk rulers/suppressors. The Principle of Intervention was used, British, French and Russian fleets were sent to help Greece defeat the Ottomans because they didn’t want the Ottomans to upset the balance of power. The Ottomans ended up signing the Treaty of Adrianople, letting the Brits, French and Russians decide the fate of Greece.
Peterloo Massacre in Britain-
The Corn Law act led to rising bread prices and bad conditions for the working class. Leading to Mass protest where a squadron of cavalry attacked 60,000 people killing 11 in a field.
Louis XVIII-
In 1814 the Bourdon dynasty was restored to the throne under ruler Louis XVIII, he accepted the Napoleonic civil code and restored two house legislatures. He was opposed by liberals and ultraroyalists.
Charles X-
Charles X succeeded Louis XVIII, he granted protection to aristocrats, he wanted the catholic church back in power over the education system. Liberals opposed Charles and forced him to accept ministerial responsibility.
Karlsbad Decrees-
The Karlsbad Decree was written by the Germanic confederation after the Burschenschaften became radical. The Karlsbad Decree closed the Burscheschaften, censored the press, and made the university under close supervision
July Ordinances
The new elections king Charles X had called (1830) led to a victory for the French Liberals, which the king took the initiative of. This led to the creation of the July Ordinances, a set of edicts issued by the king that dissolved the legislative assembly, imposed rigid censorship on the press, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. This act caused immediate rebellion called the July Revolution.
Louis-Philippe
After the July Ordinances were issued, Louis-Philippe, the duke of Orleans and cousin of Charles X quickly became the new monarch. Most of his support came from the upper middle class, and even dressed like them, leading to him being called the Bourgeois monarch. This also caused the upper class need to be put first, disappointing the lower class who had helped overthrow Charles. He also worked with François Guizot to suppress ministerial responsibility and
pursuing a policy favoring the interests of the wealthier
manufacturers and tradespeople.
Revolutions of 1830
In the year 1830, multiple revolutions took place, including in France when King Charles X was overthrown and replaced by Louis-Philippe as the new monarch. Another revolution that also occurred was in Italy, but this attempt wasn’t successful, and Austrian groups regained their power. Poland also tried to rise up against Russia, but were defeated, and a military dictatorship was established.
Reform Act of 1832
After the Industrial revolution, the reform act enfranchised 42 new cities and towns, while disenfranchising 56 rotten boroughs and reappointed others. This mainly helped the middle class, as the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote. However, this was still a major development, as the middle class began to start to become involved in operating Britain.
Reform legislation
Reform legislation during the 1830s and 40s responded to problems created during the industrial revolution and inequality. In attempts to solve these problems, laws were also created to improve conflict between aristocrats and industrialists. Some of these laws included the repeal of the Corn Law of 1846, lowering food prices, and the Poor Law of 1834 which limited help to the poor.
Revolutions of 1848- challenges to conservatism and the breakdown of the Concert of Europe (France, German states, Austria, Italian States)
In France, economic depression led political banquets and a provisional government, resulting in the establishment of the Second ruling (universal male suffrage) ended a worker’s uprising, and ended with Louis-Napolean Bonaparte being brought into power. In the Germanic states, revolution forced liberal Reforms and consideration of unification through the Frankfurt Assembly, however the Prussian King declined this. In Austria, a constitutional government was also demanded by liberals and nationalism, however internal division and military forces allowed for Habsburg rule to continue. In the Italian States, leaders similar to Guiseppe Mazzini led rebellion against conservative rule, but eventually Austrian military was able to regain control over Italy, with the exception of Piedmont.
New Police Forces
Policing became more popular in the 19th century, with British Bobbies, French serjents, and German Schutzmannschaft (which became repressive and miltarized) and were meant to keep the safety of citizens. At the same time, reformation from secular places such as institutes attempted to promote productivity. Religious reformers focused more on moral improvement.
Prison Reform
Europe was seeking a more effective disciplinary crime system, as capital punishment and exile to Australia were no longer an option. To do this, the French and British examined American prisons, and after observing, they replicated some methods into their society. They turned to isolation of prisoners, forcing them to sit alone in order to make them feel immense remorse for their actions.
Policies of Napoleon III
Under Napoleon lll, canals, harbors, public squares, wider boulevards, and railroads, to both to encourage the French economy and to be able to have control over theoretical uprisings. He also created trade unions, gave Legislative Corps more influence in the governments, and allowed strikes (in doing this he became a more liberalized leader). He did though, have a few foreign failures (such as in Mexico when Maximilian of Austria surrendered) which hindered his overall ruling.
Ideologies of Change:
Ideologies of Change
Ideologies of change were new political, economic, and social ideas that emerged in response to the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and industrialization. These ideologies challenged traditional authority, including absolutism, aristocracy, and mercantilism. They sought to reshape society through reform or revolution. Together, they transformed European politics and social structures in the 19th century.
Liberalism (economic and political)
Liberalism emphasized individual rights, equality before the law, and constitutional government. Economic liberalism promoted free markets and laissez-faire capitalism, limiting government involvement. Political liberalism encouraged representative government and expanded suffrage. These ideas influenced revolutions and reforms across Europe.
Thomas Malthus
Malthus argued that population growth would outpace food production, leading to poverty and famine. His ideas challenged Enlightenment optimism about progress. He influenced debates on poor laws and welfare during industrialization. Malthus’s theories justified limiting government assistance.
David Ricardo
Ricardo supported free-market capitalism and minimal government intervention. His “iron law of wages” claimed workers’ wages would remain at subsistence level. This idea weakened arguments for labor reform. Ricardo’s work shaped industrial-era economic policy.
John Stuart Mill
Mill expanded liberalism by defending individual liberty and freedom of expression. He argued government should only intervene to prevent harm. Mill supported democracy and women’s rights. His ideas influenced later political reforms.
Nationalism
Nationalism emphasized loyalty to shared language, culture, and history rather than rulers. It challenged multinational empires such as Austria-Hungary. Nationalism inspired revolutions and national unification movements. It reshaped Europe’s political boundaries.
Socialism vs. Utopian Socialism
Socialism sought economic equality through collective ownership of industry. Utopian socialists believed peaceful cooperation and model communities could reform society. These ideas arose in response to industrial exploitation. They influenced labor movements and later socialist ideologies.
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EXPLORATION KEY terms45
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Reformation and Religous Wars39
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Absolutism and Constitutional Government44
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Scientific Rev and Enlightenment Key Terms50
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Politics & War in the 18th Century Key Terms27
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French Revolution and Napoleon Key Terms55
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Renaissance43
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Industrial Revolution43
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2nd IR and Mass Society30
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Age Of Modernity And Anxiety18
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Imperialism PT213
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19th Cent48
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Imperialism Key Terms P319
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Great War and Russian Rev54
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Between the Worlds52
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WW233
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Cold War pt. 137
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Cold War pt. 224
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The Fall and Beyond28
