Biotechnology: Impacts & Ethics

Question 1

What is Epidemiology?

Answer 1

The study of the distribution and determinants of health‑related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems.

Epidemiology focuses on patterns (person, place, time) to inform prevention and control.

Question 2

Who are Epidemiologists?

Answer 2

Disease detectives who study patterns and causes of health problems in populations.

Epidemiologists apply findings to prevent disease and guide public health policy.

Question 3

What is the attack rate in Epidemiology?

Answer 3

The proportion of people who become ill after exposure to a disease during a specific outbreak.

Attack rate = (number of new cases among exposed ÷ number exposed) × 100.

Question 4

What does the incident rate measure in Epidemiology?

Answer 4

The rate of new cases in a population over a specified time period.

Often expressed per 1,000 or 100,000 persons per year (or as person‑time).

Question 5

What is analytic epidemiology?

Answer 5

The branch of epidemiology that investigates the causes and risk factors of health-related events.

Analytic epidemiology uses study designs such as cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies to test hypotheses about associations between exposures and outcomes.

Question 6

What does the mortality rate in Epidemiology detail?

Answer 6

The frequency of death among infected persons during a certain interval of time, including age-specific rates.

CFR = deaths among cases ÷ total cases; mortality rate is per population.

Question 7

What do age-specific rates in epidemiology determine?

Answer 7

The rate of a health event in specific age groups within a population.

Useful for comparing disease risk across age categories.

Question 8

What is co-morbidity in the context of epidemiology?

Answer 8

The presence of two or more diseases or medical conditions in a patient at the same time.

Co-morbidities can complicate treatment and outcomes.

Question 9

What are the steps for an outbreak investigation?

Answer 9

1. Investigating how many people became sick.
2. Determining their risk factors.
3. Gathering diagnosis information.
4. Creating clinical criteria.
5. Pinpointing the location of the outbreak.

Question 10

What are the different types of epidemiological studies?

Answer 10

• Case-control
• Cross-sectional
• Cohort studies

Case‑control (OR; retrospective)
Cross‑sectional (prevalence)
Cohort (RR; incidence, prospective/retrospective)

Question 11

What occurs during descriptive epidemiology?

Answer 11

Characterizing the outbreak by time, place, and person, repeating until new information is reported.

Question 12

What are the ten steps in the epidemiology process?

Answer 12

1. Prepare for the investigation.
2. Establish the existence of an outbreak.
3. Verify the diagnosis.
4. Establish case definition.
5. Conduct descriptive epidemiology.
6. Develop hypotheses.
7. Evaluate hypotheses.
8. Refine hypotheses.
9. Implement control and prevention measures.
10. Communicate findings.

The epidemiology process contains steps similar to the scientific method.

Question 13

What is an epidemic?

Answer 13

A higher‑than‑expected occurrence of a disease or health event in a defined area and period.

Example: The Ebola epidemic of 2014.

Question 14

What is an endemic?

Answer 14

When a disease is regularly found within a certain population of people or in a certain area and is predictable.

Chicken pox and malaria are examples of endemics.

Question 15

What are the three main patterns that epidemiologists may identify?

Answer 15

Epidemic, Endemic, and Pandemic.

These terms describe different patterns of disease occurrence.

Question 16

What is the difference between an epidemic and an endemic?

Answer 16

• Epidemic - affects a large number of people suddenly in a specific area.
• Endemic - is regularly found within a certain population or area.

Epidemic - The yellow fever epidemic of 1793
Endemic - chicken pox

Question 17

How is chicken pox transmitted?

Answer 17

Through droplets in the air after an infected child sneezes or coughs.

Chicken pox was first discovered in the 1500s and mostly affects school-aged children.

Question 18

What is the main mode of transmission for malaria?

Answer 18

Through mosquitoes that carry one of five species of Plasmodium parasites that can infect humans.

Malaria is seen regularly in most countries of Africa and other tropical regions close to the equator. Malaria has been eradicated in the United States since the 1940s.

Question 19

What is the disease that is regularly seen in most countries of Africa and other tropical regions close to the equator?

Answer 19

Malaria

Over 180 million people contract malaria every year with over 550,000 people dying from the disease.

Question 20

What is a pandemic?

Answer 20

An epidemic that is worldwide or over a significantly large area and affects a large portion of the population.

Example: the 1918 influenza pandemic; COVID‑19 (2019–2021+).

Question 21

What was the most dangerous flu pandemic recorded in history?

Answer 21

Spanish flu (1918 influenza pandemic)

Caused by an H1N1 influenza A virus; infected ~500 million people worldwide.

Question 22

What is another notable pandemic besides the Spanish flu?

Answer 22

HIV

(Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

The first cases were identified in 1984 with the peak of HIV infection in 1996. By the end of 2013, approximately 35 million people had been infected.

Question 23

What is DNA forensics?

Answer 23

A field that uses genetic material during criminal investigations to help solve a crime or answer questions about a crime.

DNA forensics uses DNA profiling, which is basically a DNA fingerprint, in order to find a match between a potential suspect and a crime scene.

Question 24

What is gene therapy?

Answer 24

A technique that allows doctors to prevent or treat a disease by manipulating genetic material as opposed to administering medication or performing surgery.

Several gene therapies are now approved in addition to ongoing clinical trials.

Question 25

How can **gene therapy** work?

Answer 25

* Replace a mutated gene with a healthy copy. * 'Knock out' a mutated gene. * Introduce completely novel genes into a person's body. ## Footnote Gene therapy can be used to treat diseases by manipulating genetic material in various ways.

Question 26

What are some applications of genetic engineering in **agriculture** and the **environment**?

Answer 26

* Breed new crops that are resistant to diseases or drought. * Genetically engineer animals to produce more meat per animal. * Use genetic selection to increase milk output per cow. ## Footnote Genetic engineering has been used to improve food production and reduce environmental impact.

Question 27

What is **medical technology**?

Answer 27

The use of technology to **develop solutions to health issues** and to improve wellbeing. ## Footnote 2 main areas of medical technology are *diagnosis* and *treatment* of disease.

Question 28

What are **examples** of medical technology for **diagnosis**?

Answer 28

* Stethoscopes * Hypodermic needles * Blood pressure cuffs * MRI scanners * Heart monitors * EKG machines * X-ray

Question 29

What are **ethics** in scientific investigations?

Answer 29

Moral principles that govern a person's behavior in scientific research. ## Footnote Ethics are important because scientists do research that can impact society, involve human and animal subjects, and can lead to the creation of dangerous weapons.

Question 30

What are the **key aspects of scientific ethics** related to conducting studies?

Answer 30

* Honesty about data and findings. * Objectivity in analyzing data. * Transparency in sharing raw data.

Question 31

Why is **transparency** important in scientific research?

Answer 31

To reduce the chance of data falsification and to ensure greater credibility in research. ## Footnote To prevent scientists from 'making up' data.

Question 32

What is the scientist's responsibility regarding **safety in experiments**?

Answer 32

Scientists must **ensure the safety of everyone** involved by following necessary precautions and issuing safety briefings.

Question 33

What does a **genome** contain?

Answer 33

A complete set of organism's **DNA**. ## Footnote Includes all genes and non‑coding sequences across all chromosomes (and mitochondrial DNA).

Question 34

# Define: cloning

Answer 34

Creating a **biological duplicate** of genes, cells, tissues, or organisms.

Question 35

# Define: genetic engineering

Answer 35

Modifying or **manipulating a living organism's genetic information** in order to achieve desirable traits in the organism.

Question 36

# Define: germline gene therapy

Answer 36

**Alters DNA** in gametes or embryos so changes are heritable. ## Footnote Distinguished from somatic gene therapy, which affects only treated individuals.

Question 37

What are the **potential risks** of germline gene therapy?

Answer 37

* Limited knowledge on long-term side effects. * Lack of consent from offspring.

Question 38

What **disorders** have shown promise in gene therapy clinical trials?

Answer 38

* Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID) * Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency ## Footnote Gene therapy has also been used to treat Parkinson's by injecting dopamine-producing genes into brain cells. Gene therapy has shown potential benefits for hemophiliacs by introducing clotting factors that would otherwise be missing into the blood.

Question 39

What are some pros and cons of **genetic intervention**?

Answer 39

* **Pros**: * Potential to cure serious conditions. * Treat genetic disorders, cancer, and HIV/AIDS. * **Cons**: * New and largely untested treatment * Uncertainty about long-term outcomes

Question 40

Why does the U.S. Government **prohibit federal funds for research** on germline **gene therapy** in humans?

Answer 40

Due to **ethical concerns** about the potential impact on future generations. ## Footnote Scientists are unsure if gene therapy introduced to somatic cells through a virus could spread to germline cells.

Question 41

What **ethical concerns** exist about genetic engineering?

Answer 41

Potential **reduction** of differences between people if parents can choose traits like sex, intelligence, and attractiveness.

Question 42

Why is it important for animals used in biological studies to be **ethically and lawfully procured** from certified vendors for laboratory studies?

Answer 42

To ensure **no pets are accidentally obtained** and to have known genetic quality and well-documented medical history. ## Footnote Genetics and medical history can greatly influence the outcome of a biological study.

Question 43

What should animals obtained for **laboratory studies** be checked for?

Answer 43

* tattoos * microchips * conservation status ## Footnote To ensure proper procurement and ethical treatment.

Question 44

Why is it crucial for animals in biological studies to have **appropriate housing and medical care** needs met?

Answer 44

To maintain the animal's well-being and to **avoid behavioral and physiological changes** that can affect research outcomes. ## Footnote Animals should be provided nesting materials and temperature bulbs. Deviation from standard protocols can greatly influence research performance.

Question 45

What is **human cloning**?

Answer 45

Can occur **naturally** when identical twins are born. In **artificial cloning**, segments of DNA, whole organisms, or embryonic stem cells are cloned for **medical and research purposes**.

Question 46

What is **reproductive cloning**?

Answer 46

Involves the cloning of a living organism, such as the process used to clone **Dolly the sheep**. ## Footnote Many embryos produced through reproductive cloning do not mature, resulting in high rates of abortions, stillbirths, and developmental abnormalities.

Question 47

What is **non-reproductive** cloning, or **therapeutic** cloning?

Answer 47

Involves the **cloning of segments of DNA** or embryonic stem cells for research or treating diseases. ## Footnote Gene cloning copies DNA sequences; it is not the same as therapeutic cloning.

Question 48

What is **gene cloning** used for?

Answer 48

* Synthesizing vitamins and hormones * Gene therapy * Creating a gene library

Question 49

What are the **potential ethical issues** in cloning?

Answer 49

Conflict with **religious beliefs** and **societal** principles. ## Footnote Ethical issues arise due to the potential to create a genetically identical clone to a human.

Question 50

What are **telomeres** and how are they affected in organisms born through reproductive cloning?

Answer 50

DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes that shorten naturally as an organism ages. ## Footnote In organisms born through reproductive cloning, telomeres are shorter due to the transfer of donor DNA to a denucleated egg.

Question 51

What is **eugenics** and how does it relate to cloning?

Answer 51

The idea that humans can be improved through **artificial selection**. ## Footnote Cloning could be used to discriminate or further eugenics, impacting societal relations and the human gene pool.

Question 52

Why is **genetic diversity** important in a population?

Answer 52

For developing resistance to certain diseases and adapting to an ever-changing environment. ## Footnote Genetic diversity helps in maintaining a healthy gene pool.

Question 53

What is the **main legal concern** regarding human cloning?

Answer 53

The **rights** of the cloned individual. ## Footnote The legal concern revolves around the discrimination faced by cloned individuals and their rights as citizens.

Question 54

What is the **difference** between the legal status of cloning in the United States and the United Kingdom?

Answer 54

* Reproductive cloning is banned in most countries including the UK. * Therapeutic cloning and embryonic stem cell cloning are legal in the UK. * The US has no federal laws prohibiting human cloning. ## Footnote Different countries have varying legislation regarding human cloning.

Question 55

Which **countries** have laws that ban human cloning or restrict certain types of human cloning?

Answer 55

* Austria * France * Germany * The Netherlands

Question 56

What are some **social implications** regarding human cloning?

Answer 56

Society may not accept cloned humans as **real people**. Fear and other influences could play a role in how cloned humans are treated.

Question 57

Are there laws **banning** human cloning in the United States?

Answer 57

There are currently **no laws banning human cloning** in the United States, but there are **restrictions** on government funding for cloning research. ## Footnote Federal restrictions limit funding for certain embryo research and germline editing.

Question 58

What are examples of medical technology that are used for **treatment of diseases**?

Answer 58

* Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) * Ventilators * Radiation ## Footnote Blood is removed from the body, blood is oxygenated and put back into the body.

Question 59

What was the **primary aim** of the **Human Genome Project**?

Answer 59

To determine the **complete DNA sequence** of the human genome and map all genes. ## Footnote This includes determining all sequences of base pairs of nucleotides in DNA.

Question 60

What are the **four base nucleotides** in DNA?

Answer 60

Guanine, Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine ## Footnote These nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA.

Question 61

What is the **role** of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in relation to DNA?

Answer 61

RNA helps to **copy** the DNA. ## Footnote RNA resembles a single side of the DNA ladder and is essential for replication.

Question 62

When did the **Human Genome Project** officially begin?

Answer 62

1990 ## Footnote The groundwork was laid in the mid-1980s, but substantial research only started in 1990.

Question 63

How many **base pairs** does the human genome consist of?

Answer 63

3.3 billion base pairs. ## Footnote This vast number required the project to break the genome into smaller segments for analysis.

Question 64

What **method** was used to **replicate DNA** during the Human Genome Project?

Answer 64

Using **bacteria** to create copies of DNA segments. ## Footnote Researchers worked with smaller segments of DNA (150,000 base pairs) for easier management.

Question 65

What significant **medical advancements** have resulted from the Human Genome Project?

Answer 65

* Enhanced genotyping of viruses and diseases. * Better understanding of diseases like cancer and cystic fibrosis. * Potential avenues for treatment. ## Footnote These advancements are crucial for improving healthcare outcomes.

Question 66

What is **one application** of the human genome in understanding evolution?

Answer 66

It helps us see how **similar and different** we are compared to other **primates**. ## Footnote This understanding aids in exploring human origins and future evolution.

Question 67

What is a **benefit of mapping** the human genome for genetically modified organisms (GMOs)?

Answer 67

It allows scientists to **manipulate genes** to better suit environmental conditions. ## Footnote This manipulation can lead to reduced pesticide use and improved agricultural practices.

Question 68

What **year** was the **Human Genome Project** completed?

Answer 68

2003 ## Footnote The project was an international collaboration involving multiple countries.