chapter 8 - executives

Question 1

roles of executives in democratic regimes
7

Answer 1

• Representation = interests of voters in gov., and of the state in dealing with other govs.
• Execution = overseeing (through the bureaucracy) the execution of laws and policies, and the maintenance of law and order
• Making policy = defining the policy priorities and interests of gov.
• Leadership = providing the overall direction taken by a gov. and a state
• Appointments = to other senior position in gov.
• Security = defending and preserving the unity and integrity of the state, in the face of domestic and external threat
• Crisis response = leading the response of the government to political, security, public safety and natural crises

Question 2

executive

Answer 2

= political institution responsible for overseeing the execution of laws and policies, and most often associated with the idea of national leadership

incl. prime ministers, presidents, cabinets, government ministers, governors of states, mayors

!important to distinguish temporary political executives from career bureaucrats that put policy into effect (are public employees)

executives have constrains (e.g. re-elections, public opinion surveys, media coverage), but less in authoritarian regimes

!executives don’t make laws (legislators do) and don’t interpret them (judiciary does)

Question 3

types of executives

Answer 3

• presidential
• parliamentary
• semi-presidential
• authoritarian

Question 4

head of state vs head of gov.

Answer 4

• head of state = representative of the state
  figurehead or ceremonial leader of a state, who may be elected or appointed, or may have inhereted the position (monarchs)
• head of government =
  elected leader of a gov. who comes to office because of the support of voters who identify with their party and platform

presidential executives (e.g. US, Mexico, Nigeria): combined head of state and government

parliamentary system:

• head of gov. is an elected prime minister or councilor
• head of state in republics = non-executive presidents elected through a popular vote (Ireland), parliament (Israel), or by a special electoral college
• head of state in constitutional monarchy = king/queen (e.g. NL, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, UK, Andorra, Monaco)

*presidential executives: two parts combined in one office (so head of state and gov.)
- e.g. US, Mexico, Nigeria

semi-presidential systems = president + prime minister, president can act as head of state and of gov. (if he has popular support and support in legislature)

Question 5

republic

Answer 5

political system in which all members of the gov. are elected or appointed by elected officials

aka there is no monarch

Question 6

Constitutional Monarchy

Answer 6

state headed by a monarch, but where the monarch’s powers are severely limited by constitutional rules

Question 7

presidential executives

Answer 7

= arrangement in which the executive and the legislature are separately and directly elected and have separate powers and responsibilities

e.g. Afghanistan, US, most of Latin America, Nigeria, Indonesia, Philippines

• single person governs using authority derived from popular election alongside an independent legislature
• often limits on amount of terms that can be served
• president functions as head of state and government
• winner-take-all arrangement + no opposition like in parliamentary systems, BUT president’s party often minority in legislature, therefore president works in a political minority (kind of having to govern in a coalition)
• usually president elected separately from legislature

strengths of presidential executives:

1. fixed term provides continuity in the executive, avoiding potential instability of coalitions
2. winning presidential elections requires dev. widespread support across a country
3. elected by the whole country, president rises above squabbles between local interests represented in the legislature
4. separation of powers encourages limited government

*South Africa: president/officeholder elected by members of the legislature rather than in a direct national vote

'’president pursues a national agenda, distinct from the special and local interest of the legislature -> requirement for the executive to negotiate = triumph of deliberation over dictatorship’’

Question 8

US president

Answer 8

• has additional explicit duties that have been interpreted as giving presidents additional implied powers (e.g. to issue executive orders)

hands are often tied because they share important powers with Congress:

• only Congress can declare war
• president can make gov. appointments and sign treaties ONLY with consent of the Senate
• president can veto legislation, Congress can override the veto
• Congress, not the president, controls purse strings

Question 9

separation of powers

Answer 9

arrangement in which executive, legislature and judiciary are given distinct but complementary sets of powers, such that none can govern alone and that all should, ideally govern together

• executives lead and execute
• legislatures make law
• courts adjudicate

Question 10

parliamentary executives

Answer 10

= arrangement in which the executive emerges from the legislature, remains a member of it, remains accountable to it and must maintain a working legislative majority in order to remain in office

• parliamentary executive is originally linked to the legislature (head of gov. is head of largest party in legislatures + usually holds seat in the legislature)
• prime ministers/chancellor/premier: can be removed after losing vote of confidence + can call for new elections
• unlimited number of terms in office
• executive is collegial, usually in form of a cabinet
• have a cabinet

*power of ex. depends on party balance in legislature

• majority gov. = one party wins clear majority (often in Britain) -> prime ministers strong position
• coalition gov. = multiple parties work together to get a majority
• minority gov. (can also be min. coa.) = party governs whilst in minority

Question 11

coalition gov.

Answer 11

= gov. is formed through an agreement involving two or more political parties which divide gov. posts between them

• majority coalition = 2 parties control a majority of seats = most stable
• coalitions with more/smaller parties -> less stable
• minority coalition = partner parties lack majority = least stable

!! in some elections coalitions are promised/arranged before the elections so that voters know the consequences of their votes

*coalition govs. are the norm in continental Europe

Question 12

cabinet

Answer 12

= body consisting of the heads of the major gov. departments, is more important in parliamentary than in presidential systems
- aka council of ministers

• main point of contact between executive and bureaucracy
• most gov. ministers are also members of legislature

Question 13

models of parliamentary gov.

Answer 13

• Prime ministerial = dominant figure, deals directly with individual ministers (who are followers)
  *e.g. Germany, UK
• cabinet = discussion in cabinet determines overall policy, ministers are team players
  *e.g. Finland
• ministerial = individual ministers operate with little direction from the prime minister or cabinet. the ministers are the leaders
  *e.g. Italy, Japan, NL

!ministerial gov. = ministers owe more loyalty to their party than to the prime minister or the cabinet, the prime minister’s status is diminished

Question 14

semi-presidential systems

Answer 14

= elected president co-exists with an appointed prime minister and separately elected legislature

• elected president + prime minister and cabinet
• prime minister is appointed by the president, but req. support of majority of the legislature
• ~24 countries
  -cohabitation when president doesn’t have majority in legislature and thus has to work with opposition (usually app. Opposition as prime minister)

usually president responsible for oversight, foreign and eco. affairs + prime minister resp. for day-to-day domestic gov.

head of state = president
head of gov. = president + prime minister

2 subtypes

1.Premier-presidential system: president elected, selects prime minister who heads a cabinet, legislature has sole power to dismiss the prime minister and cabinet
*e.g. Finland, France, Poland
2.presidential-parliamentary system: prime minister and cabinet answer to both president and legislature
*e.g. Russia

Question 15

cohabitation

Answer 15

= when presidency is held by a member of one party and the legislature is controlled by another party

*found in semi-presidential systems

Question 16

Russia - semi-presidential system

Answer 16

= authoritarian regime

Putin:

• head of state, commander-in-chief, guarantor of constitution
• he can suspend decisions of other state bodies, issue decrees and remove ministers (without consent of the Duma (lower chamber legislature)
• can define the basic direction of domestic and foreign policy

limited powers prime minister
elimination meaningful opposition

*Putin has changed rules about terms + won a referendum to ‘reset’ his term -> can potentially lead to 2036

Question 17

table 8.7

Answer 17

look at it

Question 18

executives in authoritarian regimes

Answer 18

=presidential executive or monarch whose powers face few constitutional or political limits

central feature: lack of institutionalization (they concentrate power in themselves rather than across institutions)

• have fewer constraints on their ability to execute policies than in democracies
• personal safety often at risk; fewer formal protections
• executives use extremer methods to win and wield power (they don’t have support of independent pol. authorities to help enforce agreements)
• politics comes for policy: executives want to keep hold of power
• price of defeat is high, often matter of life and death or prison
• gov. is often closely tied to a single leader -> when leader is gone the system falls apart (e.g. Libya 2011)
• military leaders

!dictators are often constrained by other political actors (e.g. military) -> patronage

2 types: absolute monarchy and presidential monarchy

Question 19

2 kinds of authoritarian executives

Answer 19

1. absolute monarchs = controls gov., tolerates little/no opposition + ensures legislature and courts are weak
2. presidential monarchs = president who functions more like a monarch, little constraints, often manipulation of rules (e.g. unlimited terms in office) -> establishment dictatorship
   *e.g. president Deby in/of Chad

Question 20

Ideal coalition

Answer 20

Minimum winning connected coalition