chapter 9

Question 1

legislature

Answer 1

= a multi-member representative body which considers public issues, shapes laws, represents voters and augments the work of executives

*often seen as governing bodies (is wrong), political significance lies in the link they provide between citizens and governments

*even in democratic regimes, there is often less to legislatures than might intuitively be thought, but there is at least some balance of power between legislative and executive = important foundation gov.

in autocracies:

• can be useful: incorporate moderate opponents, integrating centre and periphery, recruiting for the elite + making concessions to demands for change
• how much they can be used to exert control depends on relationship beween executive, legislature and political parties + extent to which legislatures can be used to co-opt opponents of the ruling elite

Question 2

legislature vs congress vs parliament

Answer 2

assembly=
a gathering of people, with or without a political purposes, many legislatures go by the name ‘National Assembly’

congress =
kind of legislature in pol. systems where executive and legislative branches of gov. are separate (=those with ruling monarchs or presidential executives)

parliament=
in pol. systems where executive comes out of the legislature, such as parliamentary or semi-presidential executives

*generally congress has more autonomy than parliaments (but not always)

Question 3

role legislatures in democratic regimes

Answer 3

• legislation: reviewing, amending and approving new laws
  (*it depends on how autonomous legislatures are if they also propose the laws or have more a reactive role)
• representation: representing and promoting interests of voters, usually under a party label (more local focus than executives have)
• control: exerting control over the executive, through support for - or opposition to - its policies, or providing oversight

Question 4

descriptive vs collective representation

Answer 4

descriptive (Adam Smith)=
idea that legislators should look like the larger group of people that they represent in terms of gender, class or ethnicity for example

collective (Edmund Burke)=
idea that legislatures should represent the interests of all voters, not just those in the district that selected them

Question 5

(Jackson’s three As)

Answer 5

if legislators are in office they build contacts etc. -> less likely to be removed -> arrogance, apathy, atrophy

possible solution = term limits

*proportional systems have the most turnover, plurality systems the least (e.g. US)

Question 6

how can legislatures control gov.?

• parliamentary systems
• presidential systems

Answer 6

1. augmenting the work of the executive: support, complement, offset, blocking (how big an influence depends on the system)
2. oversight: hold executives accountable

oversight in parliamentary systems:

• questions: for leaders and ministers
• interpellations: alternative form of interrogation in some European legislatures, a substantial question demanding a prompt response, followed by a short debate and vote on if the question is acceptable
• emergency/urgent debates

most important means to hold executives accountable in parliamentary systems =

1. vote of confidence = vote in legislature on question of confidence of gov. to lead (if lost, usually gov. resigns)
2. censure motion = vote to indicate disapproval of gov. or specific member

presidential systems =

• recall: popular vote on whether an elected official (incl. president) should be removed from office during normal tenure
• impeachment: removal from office of a sitting president (or other officials) through a vote in the legislature
  *in the US impeachment describes the bringing of charges, in other countries the removal from office

Question 7

origins and evolution legislatures

Answer 7

• long history (starting in Athens), many changes in their roles
• oldest surviving legislature = Althing of Iceland (930)
• often discussion about decline power legislatures, but that is like an idealized ‘golden age’ that never existed
• legislatures vary in terms of powers, structure, autonomy and place within their system (US Congress = most powerful)
• legislatures not always popular: declining trust in gov. is often in legislatures

Question 8

unicameral vs bicameral legislature

Answer 8

unicameral = single-chambered legislature (most countries are small or homogenous enough for this)

• defended by majoritarian idea of popular control (direct elections)
• is more accountable, economical and decisive

bicameral = double-chambered legislatures (larger countries + in all federations, where second chamber typically represents the component states or provinces)

• defended: upper chamber offers checks and balances + more considered debate as members often longer in office + more collegial (usually smaller) + can defend interests against potentially oppressive majority in the lower chamber
• second chamber can serve as a house of review

Question 9

bicameral legislatures

Answer 9

= 2 chambers, usually a higher chamber and a lower chamber

• lower chamber = usually more powerful: sole/dominating control over budget, almost always starting point for bills, can sometimes override vetoes/amendments offered by the second chamber and are usually bigger

!chambers need to be different, otherwise they just duplicate each other -> often diff. ways of electing: direct election, indirect election or appointment + upper house longer terms

weak bicameralism = when lower chamber dominates the upper (often with parliamentary gov. in unitary systems)
strong bicameralism = when chambers are more balanced (often with presidential systems (especially when combined with federalism))

*usually lower chambers more balanced representation, in higher chambers often imbalance (each state same amount of seats)

Question 10

representatives and their work - models of representation

Answer 10

• delegate = representatives act as delegates for the preferences of those who elected them, no matter what the broader national interest is
• trustuee = representatives use their best judgment and exp. to act in what they see as the best interest of the voters in their district
• partisan = representatives are members of a party, are expected to make decisions according to the party line
• mediator = representatives must mediate between gov. and voters, aggregating citizens into representable constituencies

Question 11

legislatures as governing elite
+ legislatures as gendered institutions

Answer 11

• career politician = legislator with limited experience outside of politics who expects politics to provide a full-time profession
• political class = group of professional politicians with similar backgrounds, interests and values
  -> makes it hard to run for political office

historical domination by men (men don’t vote for women + women face more obstacles + women are less likely to think they qualify + in some countries women are barred + legislatures are gendered institutions)

recently: tries to include more women:

• reserved seats for women (=rarest + oldest)
• party quota (= most common)
• legal mandate (=common in Latin America) = similar to party quota, but is mandated by law and counts for all parties (*doesn’t mean they are also elected)

Question 12

elite theory

Answer 12

theory that power in a society is wielded by a minority, whose members have advantages based on wealth, or age, or race, or gender, or education or something else

Question 13

legislatures in authoritarian regimes - roles

Answer 13

• co-option: incorporating moderate opponents into the gov. system
• recruitment: providing a pool of potential recruits to the elite, and working as a useful initial test of reliability
• concessions: for dictators legislatures serve as channels through which groups can make demands and leaders can ‘make concessions without appearing to cave in to popular protest’ (Gandhi)
  e.g. gov. websites where people can post questions

*ruling party can use a legislature to make concessions and to bolster its dominance without sacrificing control

Question 14

co-option

Answer 14

= proces by which leaders encourage political movements or opponents to become part of the governing system, thereby neutralizing opposition

Question 15

consultative authoritarianism

Answer 15

idea that legislatures in authoritarian regimes are used by leaders to give a sense that the regime is prepared to listen to its critics and opponents (up to a point)

Question 16

legislatures in authoritarian regimes

Answer 16

overall: relationship between legislatures, presidential monarchs and ruling parties is less than clear

= they are relatively hollowed out institutions + mainly functions as tools of the leaders (not balance of power)

• attacks on legislature are not unusual (demonstrations -> occupying legislature buildings), e.g. Haiti, Bolivia, Guatemala (+ in democratic US) = easier target than executives + hope that representatives will join the opposition to the leadership (is rare)
• all authoritarian regimes have some form of legislature, except Saudi Arabia
• legislature for co-option political opposition (neutralizing them)
• legislatures either: superficial or potential to evolve into democr. bodies or forums in which power can be shared and opposing views can be expressed (in a way that supports the interest of elites) = Gandhi
  *last is most likely / empirically best in most cases
• there is often much less to authoritarian legislature than meets the eye (reference Potemkin villages ch.7)
• legislatures may provide credibility to leaders’ promises/choices + allow or prevent leadership replacement with other auhoritarian leader
• leaders must balance allowing opposition and keeping rein on them

e.g. legislators successful in guaranteeing women’s rights, as this is seen as less dangerous for the ruler than guaranteeing human rights (e.g. right to hold elections) : it even limits the chances of protests

• China: consultative authoritarianism leads to small improvements (e.g. no unanimous votes, committees growing authority + Communist Party must anticipate the NPC’s reactions to proposals), but NPC (National People’s Congress) remains hierarchical, meets only once a year
• Egypt: legislature exist, but executive can always override it + legislature too many parties (+independents)
• Russia: Putin controls parliamentary system through controlling the legislature (mostly targets upper house (Federation Council), responsible for providing presidential nominees), constitution doesn’t mention how representatives are chosen