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individual differences Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of individual differences?

A

How individuals differ in personality, thought, behaviour, and emotion.

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2
Q

What are the main questions addressed in the study of individual differences?

A
  • What are the main dimensions of personality?
  • How does personality vary across individuals?
  • What mechanisms explain personality differences?
  • Is personality influenced by genes or the environment?
  • Does personality change over time?
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3
Q

What is a personality trait?

A

A stable, consistent pattern in how individuals behave, think, and feel.

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4
Q

What are the scientific functions of personality traits?

A
  • Description: Classify individuals’ average behaviour and feelings.
  • Prediction: Forecast behaviours (e.g., job performance).
  • Explanation: Understand why a person behaves in a certain way.
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5
Q

What do trait theories focus on?

A
  • Individual differences that are stable across time and situations.
  • Measurement via self-report questionnaires and empirical testing.
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6
Q

How are traits conceptualized in trait theories?

A

Traits are not categorical but dimensional.

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7
Q

What are the three levels in the hierarchical organisation of traits?

A
  • Trait (e.g., extraversion).
  • Habitual Behaviours (e.g., being conversational).
  • Specific Behaviours (e.g., greeting a stranger).
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8
Q

What is the lexical hypothesis in identifying personality traits?

A

Traits are reflected in language.

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9
Q

What significant research did Allport & Odbert conduct in 1936?

A

Identified 17,953 personality-related words, later reduced to 4,504.

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10
Q

What is correlation in the context of personality traits?

A

Measures associations between variables (e.g., traits that co-occur).

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11
Q

What does the correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) range from?

A

-1 to 1.

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12
Q

What is factor analysis?

A

Reduces large datasets into smaller clusters or ‘factors’ and identifies traits that correlate strongly within clusters.

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13
Q

Who is Raymond Cattell and what did he contribute to personality psychology?

A

Used factor analysis to identify 16 basic personality traits.

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14
Q

What types of data did Cattell use for his research?

A
  • L-Data: Life records (e.g., school reports).
  • Q-Data: Self-report questionnaires.
  • OT-Data: Objective measures (e.g., reaction times).
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15
Q

What is Hans Eysenck known for?

A

Developed a three-factor model of personality.

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16
Q

What are the three factors in Eysenck’s model?

A
  • Psychoticism: Aggressiveness, antisocial tendencies.
  • Extraversion: Sociability, liveliness.
  • Neuroticism: Emotional instability.
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17
Q

What are the five broad personality dimensions in the Big Five model?

A
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Conscientiousness
  • Neuroticism
  • Openness
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18
Q

What does the dimension of extraversion encompass?

A

Sociable, energetic vs. quiet, reserved.

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19
Q

What does the dimension of agreeableness encompass?

A

Cooperative, empathetic vs. competitive, detached.

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20
Q

What does the dimension of conscientiousness encompass?

A

Organised, dependable vs. spontaneous, careless.

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21
Q

What does the dimension of neuroticism encompass?

A

Anxious, emotional vs. calm, resilient.

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22
Q

What does the dimension of openness encompass?

A

Creative, curious vs. traditional, practical.

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23
Q

What historical studies contributed to the development of the Big Five model?

A
  • Fiske, 1949
  • Norman, 1963
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24
Q

Who popularised the Big Five model?

A

Costa & McCrae in the 1980s–1990s.

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25
What are facets in the context of the Big Five traits?
Each broad trait includes finer sub-traits or facets.
26
What does long-term stability refer to in the context of the Big Five?
Traits remain relatively stable in adulthood.
27
What did retest correlations over 9 years show for neuroticism?
0.76 in men, 0.55 in women.
28
What are the two higher-order dimensions proposed by Colin DeYoung?
* Stability: Desire for consistency and order. * Plasticity: Openness to change and novelty.
29
What are characteristics of narrow traits?
* Theoretical clarity. * Clear methods of measurement. * Distinction from global traits (e.g., Big Five).
30
Why are narrow traits important?
They may explain unique personality aspects beyond broad traits.
31
32
What are the two dimensions of emotions? ## Footnote lecture 2
Positive emotions (happiness, enthusiasm, excitement) and negative emotions (anxiety, worry, sadness)
33
How do extraversion and neuroticism relate to emotional experience?
Extraversion is linked to positive emotion activation; neuroticism is linked to negative emotion activation
34
Define extraversion in the context of the Five-Factor Model (FFM).
Sociable, outgoing, cheerful
35
Define neuroticism in the context of the Five-Factor Model (FFM).
Worry, sadness, emotional instability
36
What characterizes high extraversion?
Talkative, assertive, enjoys leadership, high life satisfaction
37
What characterizes low extraversion?
Quiet, reserved, prefers solitary activities
38
What are the main causes of high neuroticism?
Genetics, environment/upbringing, cognitive patterns
39
What are the six facets of extraversion?
Gregariousness, assertiveness, activity levels, excitement-seeking, warmth, positive emotions
40
What are the six facets of neuroticism?
Anxiety, self-consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility
41
True or False: Neuroticism was historically viewed positively.
False
42
What negative life effects are associated with high neuroticism?
Increased stress, relationship dissatisfaction, higher likelihood of anxiety and depression, lower self-esteem
43
List some benefits of high neuroticism.
* Fewer accidents in adulthood * Less risk-taking * Better performance in structured environments
44
Who proposed the three major personality traits including neuroticism?
Hans Eysenck
45
What does the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) regulate?
Cortical activity
46
How does low extraversion relate to cortical arousal?
High cortical arousal leads to avoidance of stimulation
47
What is the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) linked to?
Extraversion
48
What is the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) linked to?
Neuroticism
49
What happens to high extraverts' mood after positive feedback?
Mood improves
50
What happens to high neuroticism individuals' mood after negative feedback?
Mood worsens
51
What theory suggests extraversion is associated with higher motivation for rewards?
Cybernetic Big Five Theory
52
Fill in the blank: Extraversion is associated with _______.
[social engagement, reward-seeking, and positive emotions]
53
Fill in the blank: Neuroticism is associated with _______.
[emotional instability, sensitivity to stress, and worry]
54
What is the relationship between personality traits and mental health?
Both traits influence mental health, life satisfaction, and behavior
55
What is the relationship between childhood and older adult IQ scores?
Positive correlation exists, approximately 0.6–0.7 ## Footnote This correlation indicates that intelligence is relatively stable across life.
56
What does stability in intelligence imply?
Stability does not mean unchanging scores; context, education, and health influence intelligence ## Footnote Intelligence can fluctuate due to various life circumstances.
57
What are the findings of the Scottish Mental Survey follow-up studies?
Participants re-sat the Moray House Test originally taken at age 11 ## Footnote This was part of the Lothian Birth Cohorts research.
58
What cognitive abilities decline with age?
Memory, speed, and reasoning ## Footnote However, vocabulary and general knowledge may remain stable or improve.
59
What is cognitive reserve?
Enrichment in childhood builds cognitive reserve, a protective factor in ageing ## Footnote It helps resist cognitive decline.
60
What did Deary et al. (2007) find regarding IQ and educational achievement?
IQ at age 11 predicted GCSE scores at age 16 ## Footnote IQ explained over 50% of the variance in scores.
61
How does IQ relate to job performance?
IQ is a strong predictor of job success, especially in complex occupations ## Footnote Other factors include conscientiousness, integrity, and interview performance.
62
What is emotional intelligence (EI) and its significance?
EI predicts workplace success better than IQ in many roles ## Footnote Goleman (1998) emphasized its importance in social skills and emotional forecasting.
63
What is the relationship between IQ and physical health?
Higher IQ is associated with lower mortality risk ## Footnote 1 SD increase in IQ results in a 32% decrease in death risk.
64
What mental health risks are associated with lower IQ in youth?
Increased risk of schizophrenia, PTSD, and depression ## Footnote Gale et al. (2008, 2009, 2010) found a significant correlation between childhood IQ and mental health.
65
What are possible explanations for why IQ relates to health?
Smarter individuals may make healthier life choices, better problem-solving, higher SES, and reduced exposure to risks ## Footnote These factors contribute to overall health outcomes.
66
What do intelligence tests not capture?
Creativity, wisdom, social intuition, emotional regulation ## Footnote Intelligence is distinct from common sense or life experience.
67
What role does cognitive reserve play in aging?
Cognitive reserve enhances resistance to cognitive decline ## Footnote It is built through education and mentally stimulating environments.
68
What is the conclusion regarding intelligence across the lifespan?
Intelligence is relatively stable throughout life ## Footnote This conclusion is supported by various longitudinal studies.
69
True or False: Vocabulary and general knowledge decline with age.
False ## Footnote These abilities may remain stable or even improve.
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