What is lexical change?
When new words enter our language (neologisms), or when old ones cease to be used anymore (archaisms).
What is a neologism?
When new words enter our language in order to fill a lexical gap.
List the different processes by which new words (neologisms) are coined?
- borrowing (of loan words)
- compounding
- blending
- affixation
- conversion
- scientific progress
List the different shortening processes by which new words (neologisms) are coined:
- clipping
- acronym
- initialism
- back formation
Explain the process of borrowing (of loan words) and give some examples.
- Definition: Borrowing words from other languages (and then either anglicising them or retaining their original spelling or phonology).
- examples:
gateau (French)
bungalow (from Hindi)
hygge (Danish)
Shampoo (Hindi)
Kindergarten (German)
Café (French)
Explain the process of compounding and give some examples.
- Definition: Combining words together to form new words. Thumb + print creates thumbprint.
- Examples:
Ice cream
Toothbrush
User-friendly
Handheld
Railroad
Snowball
Explain the process of blending and give some examples.
- definition: Combination of clipping and compounding: words are shortened and joined together to form a new word. Often fail to take hold, often are not used after a period of time.
- examples:
smog
brunch
hangry
brexit
broflake
staycation
Coronacoaster
Explain the process of affixation and give some examples.
- definition: when a word in the English language has been created by adding Latin or Greek prefixes or suffixes to existing words (e.g. Greek prefix ‘hyper’)
- Examples:
disinterest
regift
selfless
hyperactive
hypersensitive
Explain the process of conversion and give some examples.
- Definition: A word shifts from one word class to another, usually a noun to a verb.
- examples:
text
google
ofsted-ed
network
facebook
Explain the process of scientific progress and give examples.
- definition: when advances in medicine, science and technology cause new words and phrases to be coined.
- examples:
Chemotherapy (1907)
In vitro fertilisation (1970s)
Ozone layer (1913)
Explain the process of clipping and give examples.
- definition: when the shortened form of a word becomes the norm.
Examples:
Celeb
Phone
Gym
Flu (influenza)
Deli (delicatessen)
What is an acronym and give examples.
- Definition: The first letters are taken from words to create a new term – you pronounce it as a single word.
- examples:
AIDS
NATO
NASA
RAM
What are initialisms and give examples.
- Definition: The first letters are taken from words to create a new term – each letter is pronounced separately.
- Examples:
BBC
FBI
CD
MP3
What is the process of back formation and give examples.
- definition: a verb is created by an existing noun by removing a suffix.
- Examples:
sculpt – from sculptor
edit – from editor
What is an archaism and give some examples.
- definition: An archaism is a word or phrase (or a particular meaning of a word or phrase) that is no longer in common use and is considered extremely old-fashioned.
- examples:
Anon = right away; immediately.
Betwixt = in between.
Crumpet = a person’s head.
Erelong = soon.
Fair = beautiful.
Forthwith = immediately.
What is functional theory and give an example of it?
- Halliday suggests language changes in order to suit needs of users.
- Words disappear over time (becoming archaisms) as things change e.g. advances in technology means ‘cassette’ has been replaced with ‘CD’ which may also fall out of usage and be replaced with ‘streaming’.
- Theory suggests there is a certain logic to language change: changes reflect sociocultural climate we live in.
What is random fluctuation theory and what does it suggest about lexical change?
- Charles Hockett (1958), proposed random mistakes and events lead to language change.
- e.g. misspelling of ‘owned’ for ‘pwned’ became common term in online gaming community meaning your rival is humiliated.
- random events like the pandemic can also affect language, e.g. ‘coronavirus’
List some of Oxford’s words of the year and state what lexical process they went through:
- 2013: selfie (blending)
- 2014: vape (conversion)
- 2015: emoji (clipping)
- 2016: post-truth (compounding)
- 2017: youth-quake (blending)
List some of the attitudes towards lexical change:
Negative:
- inkhorn controversy
- Jonathon Swift’s proposal: ‘daily corruptions’
Positive:
- David Crystal: ‘expressive development’
- Jean Aitchison: ‘English never stopped other words coming in’
What were the attitudes towards the English language in the period of Early Modern English?
- 16th-17th centuries - growing pride in English after return to English language following many years of French rule.
- Writers coined new words or borrow extensively from other languages (often Latin and Greek). This drastically increased the English lexicon.
What was the inkhorn controversy?
- inkhorn a symbol of self-importance.
- Increased use of Latin and Greek words began to be criticised by many who considered them ‘inkhorn’ terms – pretentious and artificial!
- Led to first formal dispute about the English language. Some saw inkhorn terms as temporarily ‘fashionable’ and corrupting the English language.
What did Cambridge professor Cheke say about the Inkhorn controversy?
- the English language should be written ‘cleane and pure, unmixt and unmangeled’
- came up with alternatives such as ‘mooned’ to replace ‘lunatic’
What was Johnathan Swift’s proposal on lexical change?
- In 1712, Swift proposed a similar model (Academie de Francais for English.
- He thought the English Language was in chaos.
- suggested the language was ‘extremely imperfect’ and was going through ‘daily corruptions’.
What were Johnathan Swift’s main concerns towards the English language?
- Shortened words (e.g. mob from the Latin mobile vulgus)
- Unnecessary contractions (e.g. disturb’d)
- Unnecessary polysyllabic words (obscuring meaning)
- Words ‘invented by some pretty fellow’ (e.g. banter, shuffling), which he claimed were mere ‘fashion’ and therefore likely to fall out of use.
