Why Does Our Language Change? (models/theories)

Question 1

What is the S Curve Model (Chen)?

Answer 1

• Chen 1972: users pick up change at gradual rate before it accelerates into wider usage before slowing and stabilising.
• Old and new term coexist until old forms eventually lost.
• E.g. Shakespeare question construction:
  
  • ‘Thinks thou’
  • ‘dost thou think?’
• latter eventually replaces former (dost thou).

Question 2

What is lexical diffusion (Jean Aitchison)

Answer 2

• another term for Curve Model -> the gradual spread of change.

Question 3

What is the wave model? (Bailey 1973)

Answer 3

• Geographical distance has impact on change and spread.
• change weakens further from ‘epicentre’ you are.
• E.g. words adopted by multicultural youths in LDN unlikely to be used by white middle class speakers in Edinburgh (distanced from epicentre).

Question 4

What is the random fluctuation theory? (Charles Hockett, 1958)

Answer 4

• Random mistakes/events lead to lang change.
• E.g. misspelling of ‘owned’ as ‘pwned’ became a common term in online gaming meaning rival is humiliated.
• Random, unexpected events like Coronavirus pandemic may also affect lang.

Question 5

What are lexical gaps?

Answer 5

• When a word that could exist, doesn’t exist (but may be present in other langs).
• Filled by borrowing/coining new word.
• E.g. term for child who loses parent (orphan), no word for parent losing child.
• E.g. Danish ‘hygge’, concept cannot be translated to single word but means feeling of cosy contentment.

Question 6

What is the substratum theory?

Answer 6

• Lang changes through contact with other langs.
• historically, mainly through trade/invasion.
• now, through social networking/immigration.
• Adopting elements of a new lang may result in imperfections and passing these on.

Question 7

What is functional theory?

Answer 7

• lang changes/adapts according to needs of users.
• words disappear over time (archaisms) as things change, e.g. advances in tech mean ‘cassette’ replaced with ‘CD’ -> ‘streaming’.
• theory suggests changes reflect sociocultural climate we live in.

Question 8

Explain how the industrial revolution contributed to lang change (1760-1840)

Answer 8

• great tech change: new inventions/ways of working mean new words/phrases needed (e.g. shift work, clocking-on).
  
  • semantic fields of tech (telephone, camera, electricity) science/medicine (cholera, oxygen, vaccine) and transport (train, engine, piston) from this era.
• urbanisation: people move to cities to work and increased population caused higher levels of lang contact.

Question 9

What is language contact?

Answer 9

• when speakers of different langs or varieties of the same lang interact for prolonged periods.

Question 10

Explain how the British Empire played a role in language change/spread

Answer 10

• late C16th-20th: empire took lang throughout the World, brought foreign words back to Eng.
• Eng imposed as official lang in many of its colonies.
• for colonisers, imposing Eng was important way of establishing authority, a political tool for controlling new lands and demonstrating power.
• Eng has violent past. Viewed using metaphors: Eng is a bully.

Question 11

Explain how politeness and political correctness (PC) play a role in lang change

Answer 11

• Loss of ‘thou’ and ‘thee’, leaving only ‘you’ is significant marker of increased politeness in English lang.
• PC’s purpose is to remove words/phrases that have negative connotations. E.g. ‘old people’ = ‘senior citizens, ‘half-caste’ = ‘mixed race’.
• suffices ‘-ess, -ette’ no longer used, e.g. ‘actor’ now refers to either female/male and ‘actress’ gradually no longer used.
• Some feel this change is too far when changes obscure meaning, e.g. ‘sanitation consultant’ instead of ‘toilet cleaner’.

Question 12

Explain how technology has played a role in language change

Answer 12

• most significant influence.
• communication systems (telephone, internet, email etc) all influence lexicon
  -> ‘TikTok, email, web page etc’.
  -> also influence way we use lang with increased use of acronyms and initialisms (LOL, BTW, DTB, ASAP).
• Rise of TV and film exposed us to range of national and international dialects -> American Eng affects lang through music, film and TV.

Question 13

Explain how changes in society and societal attitudes play a role in lang change

Answer 13

• 1950s saw emergence of teen, rise of youth culture saw social group open to change and linguistic creativity.
• acceptance around gender neutrality/transgender ppl -> use of ‘Mx’ (alternative to honorifics Mr, Mrs) and ‘they’ pronoun becoming more prevalent.
  -> 2015, ‘Mx’ included in Oxford English Dictionary.
  -> ‘Mx’ now accepted widely by institutions like NHS, as well as many councils and unis.