Midterm PS2255 Flashcards

Question

Iraq in the Interwar Era

Answer 1

- 1920 three separate provinces became Ieaz. Most ethnically and religiously diverse region. No political community prior. - British support minority Sunnis in government. - Countryside dominated by semi-autonomous tribal confederations, uprisings against the British attempt to replace decentralized rule with centralized governmental structures. - Also empire by treaty like Egypt. Amir Faysal installed as ruler but he was foreign to the region. Increased autonomy in internal affairs through a series of treaties designed to legitimize Faysal. - 1932 granted formal independence but Britain retained military and security privileges as well as favourable oil concessions. - 1933 Faysal dies and power is consolidated in a narrow clique of political elite. Sectarian trend Sunni v.s Shi'a. - 1936-1941 Military as the arbiter of Iraqi politics. self appointed role of true symbol of Iraq

Answer 2

- Direct rule by France. Use High Commissioner and heavy military. Little scope for self government - Divide and rule policy. Promote ethnic and regional fragmentation. Political units: Damascus, Aleppo, Alawite, Druze. - Promote political prominence of propertied conservative class or urban Sunni Muslims, isolate Alawite and Druze. - Add fertile valley as part of Lebanon, designed to increase sectarian conflict because the area was inhabited by Sunni Muslims. Ensure that the Christians need colonial help to rule in Lebanon. - Institutional fragmentation is a legacy till today. - 1925-1927 Great Revolt, objection to mandate rule. Emergence of National Bloc, similar to the Wafd Party however a conservative variety of nationalist, not necessarily revolutionary. - By WWII no institutions of self government, territorial unity and national leaders are discredited by their moderate approaches. Legacy of political instability.

Answer 3

- New states but with artificial borders, names, capitals and ethnic compositions. - Sowed seeds for unresolved conflict, disputed boundaries, ethnic/religious tensions and stateless minorities (Owen). - Hastened economic integration of new states. Entered in to international economy as dependent: exporters of agricultural products, mandatory powers control monetary and fiscal policies. - Social Basis for Postcolonial regimes was that wealthy land owners dominated national political life v.s urban and rural poor who were mobilized by nationalist and socialist parties. - Struggles and questions regarding identity. Authentic v.s Imported. Ethnic/Tribal v.s Civic Nationality.

Answer 4

1. Resilient state system: centralized rule. powerful security apparatus and reliance on fear and coercion due to military heritage. Euro build on late Ottoman reforms. Lead to overemphasis on security and underdevelopment of other areas such as education and health. 2. Emergence of new elites and institutions 3. State control of religious institutions. Ulema lose autonomy. 4. Economic dependence and cultural tensions. identity and institutional crisis. Orientalism and Islam, Islam's compatibility with modernity.

Answer 5

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN - 1830-1970 limited to urban areas though existing territories and land acquisition in main agricultural areas. - Displacement of Arab and Berber populations to less fertile lands leads to disease and food shortages. - Large number of Europeans migrate to Algeria, rupture social fabric bc dominate all aspects of Algerian life. - 1870 total colonization, incorporate Algeria as part of French metropole, different than the rest of the Arab world.

Answer 6

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN - Semblance of Tunisian autonomy couple with French effort to ensure commercial interests in Mediterranean - Autonomy undermined by French Resident General who maintained control over economy and armed forces. - Establish as French protectorate despite resistance, pre-existing French presence because Tunisia had declared bankruptcy. - 1883 La Marsa Convention gave a formalized role to the Resident General, who was bound to implement policies dictated by Paris. Institutions intact but conduit for French policy priorities. - Create local elite with investment in the protectorate to curb popular movements.

Answer 7

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN - Founded in 1928 by school teacher Hassan al-Banna in area near Suez Canal with heaviest British occupation - Implementation of Shari'ah law to subvert British domination. Counter vision of superior West using Islamic discourses - 1987 Islamic Resistance Movement - Wafd active independence based on liberal ideology whereas the Muslim Brotherhood accused Wafd of reinforcing British and European domination.

Answer 8

Cleveland and Bunton - Turkish resistance to the Treaty of Sevres (1920) which punished the Ottoman empire and granted self determination to Christians. Finances of gvts under allied control and restoration of the Capitulations. - In 1920, a body of rebel representatives forms the Grand National Assembly with Kemal Ataturk as president. Justification: Istanbul government controlled by foreign occupiers and thus not representative of the people. Leads to the adoption of popularity sovereignty. Dismantle Treaty of Sevres, takes control of military and eventually abolishes the sultanate by separating the caliphate and the sultanate. End of ottoman political era and dual governments fighting for recognition in Turkey.

Answer 9

-1908-1918 -Reformers were inspired by Japans victory over Russia. Example of resisting using tools of European success: constitution and a modern army -Made up of three figures: exiled figures, discontented civil servants and students, army officers. -Protest groups were critical of tyranny of Abdul Hamid II, who annulled the tanzimat constitution that enshrined equality of all. -Demand for reinstitution of the constitution and restoration of Ottomanism. -Committee for Union and Progress: CUP. secret protest society civil servants and military students. want to preserve territorial integrity and reinstitute 1876 constitution. -1908 Revolution second constitutional era, remove Abdul Hamid. 1909 lead to counter revolutions by clerics and some military officers. -1908-1913 Young turks were supportive of intellectual freedom, 1913-1918 turned in to an oppressive military dictatorship. -Commitment to Ottomanism, constitutional government, limiting the monarchy and equal rights for non Muslims (abolish Millet system) , Growing Turkish cultural movement in response to Balkan nationalism -NOT nationalists. Ziya Gokalp: "Belong to Turkish nation, Muslim religious community and European civilization"

Answer 10

- Committee for Union and Progress in Turkey - Beginning of Arabism in Arab provinces leads to a pronationalist outlook with the goal of decentralization and the cultural goal of greater recognition for Arab cultural identity. - NOT a call for independence like the Christians in the Balkans but changes like making Arabic the official language. - This was all a response to the removal of Arab administrators by the CUP.

Answer 11

1905-1911 -Ottoman Constitutional revolution to curb the authority of the shah and the royal autocracy -Heterogeneous constitutional movement led by reformist bureaucratic elite and officer corps, traditional bazaar merchants, ulema and a group of radical reformers. Causes of Anti-government protest: 1. foreign economic penetration. economic concessions to Britain to keep court in luxury. Oil right awarded to William D'arcy and the Iranian government was only granted 16% royalty. 2. favorable customs rates to foreigners. hurt bazaaris, local craft industries. see concessions as an offense as it was sold to foreign Christians. Threat to economic survival. 3. small euro-oriented reformers opposed to royal court corruption and foreign exploitation under the Qajars. 4. Some members Ulema see the economic concerns and constitutional movement as an opportunity to gain independence from the state. Larger group of ulema are anti-revolutionist and side with traditionalist.

Answer 12

- 1st assembly (Majlis) met in 1906. not a secularizing constitution. Insert a clause that states that shi'ism is the state religion and there would be a supreme court committee of clerics to vet whether laws compatible with sharia. - Reformers v.s Bazaaris and Ulema (traditionalists) over 1. the appropriate state/religion relationship 2. questions of equal rights for non muslims 3. pace and extent of social reform. - Results in fractions within the coalition that leaves Iran vulnerable to Russian pressure. Assembly is suspended and in 1911, Iran is divided in to British and Soviet spheres of Influence. - Royal autocracy curbed, but due to the constitutional alliance breaking down, opportunity for intervention and occupation.

Answer 13

- twin pressures from European expansionism and domestic discontent. Ottomans and the Iranian elite readjust governing institutions - Young Turks in 1876 want the constitution restored with equality for all, the policy of the ottomans designed to generate spirit of unity at a time when ethnic communities demanded independence - Ottoman constitutional movement failed because the CUP reform because a military dictatorship which alienated the Arabs through centralization. Successful Balkan nationalism and subsequent independence. - Iran had a similar goal: the preservation of the state from internal and external aggression. different directions for reform made governing difficult - -->deteriorating order--->British and Russian occupations which were violations of sovereignty and contributed to anti-western sentiments

Answer 14

- Both were under the occupation of allied powers with a monarchy, which was considered compromised, nominally presiding. - Both countries had popular discontent aimed against foreign occupation and influence - However in turkey, the popular discontent lead to national independence under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk - In Iran, anti foreign demonstrations lead to military commanders forcing the shah to institute a new government. consolidation of power, using military against the tribal rebellions. Convince Majlis to depose Qajar Dynasty and convene a constituent assembly where in In 1925, crown the Pahlavis - Both had state sponsored reforms but of different types. Turkey had a republican government with a strong executive that sought to replace religion with ideology and nationalism as the primary loyalty. privatization of religion - However in Iran, state sponsored reforms resulted in monarchical and hereditary rule. - Comparable in efforts to separate state from influence of religious organization ans projects of nation building. - WWII, Turkey's friendly neutrality till 3 months before the armistice and subsequent declaration of war on Ger --> qualify for Charter membership., Iran's neutrality not respected, British and Society occupation.

Answer 15

- Root out Ottoman and Qajar past in Iran. Westernization through creation of a national secular culture through people's houses, the society of public guidance which emphasized the achievements of pre-Islamic empires. - Iran's reforms less consistent - Ataturk used a process of continuing and increasing the intensity of the Ottoman era reforms. Secularization of politics and institutions with Swiss civil code. Shari'a was abolished in Turkey and restricted in Iran to only family law and personal status. Broke the financial power of the ulema in both countries. Root out Ottoman, reform alphabet and created the historical society in 1925 which used a nationalist historical lens. - An example of forced westernization of social life was the ban on the veil in Iran. - Educational reforms increased literacy and trained new administrators. Religious schools abolished in Turkey but enrollment in religious primary school actually went up in iran. - One man rule in Turkey and Iran. National assemblies as 'rubber stamps'

Answer 16

Reza Pahlavi: fragile, selective reformer ex) ignored the constitution rather than reforming it, that didn't create domestic support through indoctrination but rather an institutional base and control over the bureaucracy using patronage ( award posts to regime supporters in his hotels, casinos and charitable foundations). had large land holdings, seen as self serving like the rulers during the mandate era. Kemal Ataturk: committed Westernizer and reformer who sowed seeds for future popular democratic government.

Answer 17

-Paralysis of old regime due to perpetual political crisis. British won't grant independence due to Suez Canal interests. -Resentment of British and Egyptian ruling class. -Rich Group of Egyptian nationalists in the armed forces lead by Nasser that staged a coup to institute a new regime 1952. Replace ex Ottoman political elite with sons of small peasant proprietors and petty merchants. Grievances: growing gap between rich and poor as well as anti-West sentiments. 6 Point program for Military Led Government post Coup 1. destroy British colonialism and European collaborators 2. elimination of feudalism 3. end of political control of state by foreign capital 4. social justice and the end of class exploitation 5. strong national army 6. healthy democratic life

Answer 18

- Both reformers that freed their respective countries from foreign occupation and domination. Abolished co-opted monarch. - Radical restructuring of the old order, populist republics with nominal democracies. President as the head of mas based party. Use of indoctrination, and reliance on a domestic power base. - Nation building

Answer 19

- Secularism. Ataturk was principled in his elimination of Islam from the public sphere whereas Nasser instrumentalized Islam for political purposes: appeal of Islamic institutions to legitimize Arab socialism. used to legitimize rule where as Reza Shah and Ataturk secularization. Nasser did not attempt to cut off from past identities, Iran root out Qajar past and Turkey root out Ottoman past. - Nasser's popularity due to social reforms in conjunction with foreign policy ventures, and pan-Arabist ambitions. an example would be the perception of Nasser as standing up to the Western powers during the Suez Crisis - Ataturk had a restrained foreign policy and disavowed pan-Turkism. Focus on Turkish policies. Respect neutrality in WWII - Reza Shah Pahlavi used violence and coercion and thus had poor public opinion. Ignores the 1907 fundamental laws that stated no laws cold contravene sharia. (insisted upon by the ulema) Different use of Islam.

Answer 20

Cleveland and Bunton -Constitutional popular sovereignty and republicanism exercised through the Grand National Assembly -Sole party in the state at the time was the Republican People's Party (RPP). President had lots of power because control RPP and through it the assembly. -Continue 19th century transformation/reform but root out Ottoman past. Foundations of Kemalism 1. Reformism 2. Republicanism 3. Secularism:r educe influence of Islam on political and social life and redirect public loyalty to the nation and state symbols. Remove Islam as an inst regulating agent.ex) depose and abolish caliphate, abolish sharia, ban religious practices in public such as the fez 4. Nationalism and 5. Populism. Pride in Turkishness and promote cultural symbols of identity. ex) new alphabet to replace Arabic. 6. Etatism: total control of state over citizens. State capitalism, use state funds to construct major projects using 5 year plans. neglect agricultural development.

Answer 21

- Liberal Experiment 1924-1936. short lived parliamentary democracy. coming from euro trained Wafd elites. - Wafd win first elections, but the nature of the constitution ensured a weak legislature with extensive power to King, spirit of compromise and respect doesn't take root. In conjunction with continued British intervention in domestic affairs it failed. Power struggle between Wafd, British and King. Wafd want more power at expense of King, King wants to preserve power sides with British and British support King. - Not popular with people because 1. dominated by land holding elites so little common economic grievances 2. pro-west politicians seen as an attack upon tradition. End of WWII Wafd seen as weak and co opted. Leads to Islamic activism.

Answer 22

- Wafd, monarchy and parliamentary government are discredited. Seen as co-opted. - February Fourth Incident. British ambassador gives King Faruq ultimatum, abdicate or invite Wafd to form government. Infuriates nationalists and discredits Wafd who took office under protection of British tanks. - Accelerated the demise of parliamentary system. King humiliated, Wafd compromised.

Answer 23

- Nasser destroyed all rivals both civilian and military to secure status as commanding political force. - King Faruq was forced to abdicate the monarchy was abolished, ban all parties and old politicians, anti left and drove Muslim Brotherhood underground after attempted assassination. - 1952 Agrarian Reform, increased popular support. Abolished all civil titles. - 1962 Charter for national Action with the goals of freedom, socialism and unity, the vanguard of the Arab Revolution. - Mass based party- the Arab Socialist Union headed by Nasser. instrumental in mobilizing public opinion and socializing youth around regime ideals. - new cultural orientation: from western secular (interwar era) to emphasis on the Arabness of Egypt for Arab unity and Egyptian hegemony. But Arab unity in tension with Egyptian intervention in other countries

Answer 24

- 1955 Nasser had plans to build a second damn across the Nile but needed funding. - World Bank put together a loan package with the US and Britain agreeing to participate but impose conditions, Britain and US withdraw in 1956 while Nasser considers the terms. - 1956 Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal in response. Popular strategic move in the Arab world due to the Suez Canal being a symbol of Western domination. - During the negotiations, Britain, France and Israel engage in a secret joint military action with an Israeli airstrike in Sinai. - Under US pressure, Britain and France sign a UN sponsored cease fire. - Nasser is seen as the hero who stood up to the coercive colonial and imperial practices of the West.

Answer 25

- Most significant ideological party of the post war era - Founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah al din al-Bitar. - Influence beyond borders - Revolutionary Arabism coupled with desire for Arab unity under one nation. - Goals: end social injustice, class exploitation, tyranny, establish freedom, democracy and socialism.

Answer 26

- Nasser got ride of rivals to prevent factionalism (abolished monarchy, bans all political parties and former politicians). - Postwar instability due to: 1. Divide and rule policies of the colonial mandate era that let to identification along ethnic lines and sectarian conflict. Retain ethnic loyalty at expense of national one (French Political units: Damascus, Aleppo, Alawite, Druze) - Civilian factionalism due to the diverse and numerous ideological political parties (banned under Nasser) 2. Both politicize the military, can't prevent fragmentation of officer corps. Nasser - secured loyalty of the army as a united unit. 3. Country's place in struggle for dominance in the Arab world.

Answer 27

- Iraq was under the Hashemite monarchy until 1958 - Regime stagnation due to anti-Nasser propoganda and a pro-British alliance led to an overthrow by Abd al-Karim Qasim. - Decade of instability, like Syria but unlike Egypt. - Unstable military rule due to factionalism - Emergence of ideological parties like Syria but unlike Egypt (because Nasser banned them) (communists v.s Ba'ath) - Mobilization behind common goals seemingly impossible due to divided society. Economic, social and religious interest groups. Shi'a are the underrepresented majority. Oppose pan-Arabism. Sunnis have all the power - 1968 Ba'athist coup, 1979 Saddam Hussein becomes president and appoints kinsmen from Takrit to key governmental positions. More personal tone to the regime.

Answer 28

- parliamentary regimes from the mandate era are discredited/abolished through military coups in Syria, Egypt and Iraq - Resilience of authoritarianism through repression and coercion. revolution movements become authoritarian one party oligarchical in nature. - parliamentary regimes don't survive in the region because: 1. elitism of the system by entrenched elites 2. endemic corruption 3. can't end foreign corruption, western intervention (Free Officers Coup did expel British but still became oligarchical). 4. foreign intervention, sabotage, fragile democracies and replace them with nationalistic military domestic one party regimes. 5. great power intervention reinforce chauvinistic nationalism, which diverted attention away from human and social development 4. foster authoritarian tendencies with unproductive expenditures on defense security.

Answer 29

-Maintain mil bases in several countries and naval nearby and naval capabilities nearby -Intervene in domestic affairs subtly and covertly. Opt for status quo. -Order and stability by supporting allies. Didn't support revolutionary cases in most cases -Orthodoxy in foreign policy because domestic dichotomy in politics -Fund and train military in friendly government -Anti-soviet military alliance between Middle Eastern countries -Provide economic aid, Truman's Point 4 Program and others. -Why Step In : 3 Pillars of US Cold War Policy since 1950's 1. Ensure security and prosperity of Israel (seen as under perpetual threat 2. Contain Soviets 3. Secure access to oil

Answer 30

Overt: 1. Iraqi weapons of mass destruction 2. Ba'ath Party's human rights violations. Democratization Covert: 1. Iraqi oil reserves 2. Neoconservative influences in Washington. Establishment of interventionist policy. US foreign policy critiqued as not being consistent, but can be. Turf wards between the Pentagon and the State Department. ex of consistency of policy) Bush freezing aid to the Mubarak administration when it jailed a critical journalist. true commitment to democratization?

Answer 31

- Shifts in US policy towards Iraq. - Support Ba'athist party because they were anti-communist - Shift when Ba'ath party signs friendly treaty in 1972. 1979 Islamic revolution created another reversal, warm relations till 90's (Iraq annexes Kuwait) - Post Cold war policy of dual containment with Iraq and Iran. Isolate them using sanctions. more interventionist, break from previous policy by George Bush Sr. - Poorly conceived strategy because of sectarian violence and the collapse of state institutions. Rise of ISIS and anti Americanism as well as waning US hegemony in the region - UN monitoring system (UN Special Commission on Disarmament) for WMD's, Saddam Hussein refuses to let them monitor till economic sanctions lifted, war of attrition 2003.

Answer 32

- discovery of oil enhances strategic importance of the middle east **Churchill's decision to transition the British navy from coal powered to oil powered. - Increased Western intervention in Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia - Template: foreign control of oil --> popular resentment - -> attempt to nationalize --> resistance by government backed foreign companies --> foreign government covertly re institutes friendly non democratic regimes

Answer 33

- First place that oil was exploited industrially in commercial quantities. - 1901 60 year concession given to Britains William D'arcy during the time of the Qajar Dynasty. - Churchill coal to oil decision spurs naval revolution (+ exponential increase of uses for petroleum in 20th century) 1. Britain dependent on imported commodity 2. Increase strategic importance of Iran 3. New level of encroachment of Iranian sovereignty to ensure security of supply. Use of British Indian troops. British control Southern coastal region, British quasi sovereignty. Increased economic control (different than Capitulations) through direct ownership by British government of Oil in Iran (Anglo Persian Oil Company 51% ownership post boycott) - 1932 Reza Shah attempts to cancel the concession but loses at the League of Nations Court of Justice. - 1951 attempted nationalization under Mosaddeq, foreign collusion to boycott Iranian oil and 1953 CIA/MI6 stage a coup to reinstate Shah's absolute power. Return to subservience of Western oil companies except the US now has a 40% share. - Iran successfully nationalized in 1979

Answer 34

- Iraq was never a political unit, 3 different provinces. -Unsynchronized British occupation (British Indian gvt and British officials in Egypt) - Concessions to foreign consortium dominated by Anglo Persian Oil Company in 1925 - British pressure resulted in the ratification despite heavy opposition. - 1975 Ba'ath nationalizes - 2003 Iraqi invasion, oil firm and government collusion. British trade minister lobbies US on behalf of BP, BP gets favorable concessions and Britain fights with the US - Coalition in West to ensure that the PM candidates know they must return to domination from big oil companies - 2006 US pressures Maliki government to introduce new oil legislation, parliament refuses to pass it so use contracts to bypass. return to big oil. - Contracts: long term, no requirements for investment in local economies and hiring locals

Answer 35

- Till 1960's, 7 sisters keep prices low to fuel power war recovery - 1973 onwards, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries increase prices and thus revenues. - New wealth strengthens unrepresentative political systems at the expense of political and social change. - Regimes more resilient - Indigenous control over oil strengthens status quo - Western oil companies lose control but not revenue, shift to areas such as refining and shipping. US still has mil bases in Saudi - Oil wealth + Lack of political representation leads to 1. system of patronage and corruption instead of human development. Reliance on Western patrons. 2. Expensive weapons systems bought from external powers.

Answer 36

- Ib'n Saud, father to four succeeding Kings. - Alliance with puritanical religious reform movement + tribal connections. - Support from US and Britain. - Standard Oil of California in Saudi in 1933, joined with Texaco in 1936 - Ib'n Saud balance US and Britain off each other, also Sir Percy Cox arrogance - Makes US dominant force and ARAMCO a swing producer - Largest oil reserves in the world with a strategic location - Keep US troops and oil workers strictly segregated (xenophobic subjects)

Answer 37

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN - 1923 with Kemal Ataturk as head of state - Against an independent Armenian State, possible genocide (debated) - Six Principles 1. Republicanism 2. Secularism 3. Populism 4. Nationalism 5. Statism 6. Reformism

Midterm PS2255 Flashcards

(61 cards)