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NEUROLOGY > NeuroAnatomy (P Felts) > Flashcards

NeuroAnatomy (P Felts) Flashcards

1
Q

What is the CNS composed of?

A

The brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

What is the PNS composed of?

A

12 Cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves (+ branches)

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3
Q

What are the first 3 swellings of the neural tube called during development?

A

Prosencephalon
Mesencephalon
Rhombencephalon

PRIMARY VESICLES

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4
Q

The Prosencephalon and Rhombencephalon divide into two further parts. What are these secondary vesicles named?

A

Prosencephalon = Telencephalon and Diencephalon

Rhombencephalon = Metencephalon and Mylencephalon

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5
Q

What does the mesencephalon become?

A

It remains as the mesencephalon between the diencephalon and metencephalon

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6
Q

What do each of the secondary vesicles give rise to in a mature brain?

A 
Telencephalon - cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalon - Thalamus and Hypothalamus
Mesencephalon - Midbrain
Metencephalon - Pons & Cerebellum
Myelencephalon - Medulla Oblongata
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7
Q

What are the two main types of cell found in the CNS and what are their functions?

A

Neurons - communication via electrical impulses

Glial cells - “glue” the CNS together as there is no connective tissue for support

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8
Q

What are the 2 main types of neuron and what type of signals usually flow through each?

A

Multipolar - many dendrites and ONE axon extending into PNS
- MOTOR efferents travel along these

Pseudo-unipolar - cell body found in PNS
- Sensory afferents travel along these

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9
Q

What are the 4 main types of glial cells found in the CNS?

A

Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells

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10
Q

What are the main functions of each types of glial cell?

A

Astrocyte - supportive, maintain BBB

Oligodendrocytes - myelination in CNS NOT IN PNS

Microglia - similar to macrophages => Immune monitoring and antigen presentation

Ependymal cells - Ciliated columnar epithalium lining ventricles

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11
Q

Describe how oligodendrocytes myelinate nerve fibres in order to speed up the rate of electrical conduction?

A

Myelinate sections => leaving small gaps (called nodes of ranvier)

Electrical signals must jump over this gap, which speeds up signal conduction

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12
Q

How do microglia appear in their resting phase compared to a phase where they encounter an insult of infection?

A

Resting state = short, spiny cell processes

When activated by infection = rounder and more similar to a macrophage

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13
Q

Ependymal cells form a barrier between the CSF and the brain tissue. TRUE or FALSE?

A

FALSE

CSF can still move outwith ventricles regardless of this layer of epithelium

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14
Q

What are the 2 types of astrocytes and which is found in grey and white matter?

A

Grey matter - Protoplasmic astrocyte

White Matter - Fibrous astrocyte

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15
Q

What are gyri, sulci and fissures?

A

Gyri - bulges of cerebral hemispheres
Sulci - indentations (or sunken in parts)
Fissures - DEEP sulci

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16
Q

What is the difference in make up of grey matter and white matter?

A

Grey Matter = cell bodies of neurons, synapses and support cells

White Matter = axons of neurons, support cells
=> NO CELL BODIES

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17
Q

Roughly speaking where are the grey and white matter found in the brain?

A

Grey matter covers outside of cerebral hemispheres BUT also makes up important central structures e.g. thalamus

White matter = deep to the grey matter on outside of cerebral hemispheres

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18
Q

Describe the distribution of grey and white matter in the spinal cord?

A

Grey Matter - H shape (2 anterior horns, 2 posterior horns)

White Matter - Surronds Grey H

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19
Q

What is the function of the central sulcus?

A

Differentiates regions with different functionalities

e.g. Primary sensory and motor cortexts

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20
Q

Where is the Primary Somatosensory cortex located?

A

Post-central gyrus

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21
Q

Where is the Primary Somatomotor cortex located?

A

Pre-central gyrus

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22
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Large area of white matter carrying material between the RIGHT and LEFT hemispheres of the brain

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23
Q

What is the relevance of the calcarine sulcus?

A

Marks the location of the primary visual cortex

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24
Q

What is contained in the fornix of the brain and what is its function?

A

Limbic system found here

Plays a role in memory making

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25
Q

What are the four traditional lobes of the brain?

A

Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital

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26
Q

What seperates the frontal and parietal lobes?

A

The central sulcus

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27
Q

What seperates the frontal and parietal lobe from the temporal lobe?

A

Lateral sulcus

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28
Q

What seperates the parietal and occipital lobes?

A

Parieto-occipital sulcus

This is more defined medially than it is on lateral brain

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29
Q

What non-traditional lobe of the brain is found concealed in the cerebral hemispheres, and what is its function?

A 
Insular lobe (insula)
- plays a role in patients experience of pain
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30
Q

What 3 layers make up the meninges (superficial to deep)?

A
  • Dura mater.
  • Arachnoid mater.
    • *Subarachnoid space CSF**
  • Pia mater.
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31
Q

Why is it difficult to remove the dura matter from the inner surface of the cranium?

A

It acts as the periosteum for the inner part of the skull

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32
Q

Describe how the layout of the arachnoid and pia matter create the subarachnoid space

A

Arachnoid matter = stretched layer over the brain

Whereas pia mater = only 1-2 cells thick, so falls into all the sulci and tightly covers gyri.

=> Space between these 2 layers contains CSF

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33
Q

Why are the lateral ventricles shaped the way they are?

A

To extend CSF into all traditional lobes of the brain

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34
Q

A blockage in the ventricles or their connections between each other would cause what condition?

A

Hydrocephalus (back up of CSF being produced)

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35
Q

What could potentially cause a blockage in the ventricular system?

A

A tumour pressing on the cerebral aqueduct

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36
Q

What other nervous system is often forgotten about in the body?

A

Enteric (digestive) nervous system

  • has its own set of nerve plexuses in gut walls
  • influenced by ANS
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37
Q

By which 2 directions is blood supplied to the brain?

A
  • from vertebral arteries

- from internal carotids

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38
Q

What arteries connect the blood supply from vertebral and internal carotid arteries?

A

posterior communicating arteries

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39
Q

Roughly where do each of the 3 major cerebral arteries supply?

A

Anterior cerebral a. = medial brain and most of frontal lobe
Middle cerebral a. = lateral brain
Posterior cerebral a. = posterior brain

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40
Q

How is the majority of blood drained from the brain?

A

dural venous sinuses

- these then drain into the internal jugular vein

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41
Q

Why are there enlargements in the cervical and lumbar regions of the spinal cord?

A

Increased spinal tissue in these areas to deal with the limbs

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42
Q

At what vertebral level does the spinal cord end, and what is this structure called?

A

L2

“conus medullaris”

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43
Q

What continues after the conus medullaris in order to connect to the coccyx?

A

thin connective tissue cord

=> filum terminale

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44
Q

The meninges in the spinal cord are continuous with those in the brain. TRUE/FALSE?

A

TRUE
however the dura mater in the spinal cord does NOT act as periosteum for the vertebrae. They are seperated by a fat pad known as the epidural space

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45
Q

Describe the distribution of white and grey matter in the spinal cord

A

“H” of grey matter found centrally (2x anterior horns and 2x posterior horns)
White matter surrounds this

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46
Q

What arteries help to supply blood to the spinal cord?

A

3 major longitudinal arteries - 2 posterior, 1 anterior

segmental arteries - e.g. intercostal, lumbar

Radicular arteries (travel along ant/post. roots)

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47
Q

Embolic occlusion of any artery supplying the spinal cord can lead to areas of infarction. TRUE/FALSE?

A

TRUE

48
Q

How is blood drained from the spinal cord?

A

anterior and posterior venous plexuses

49
Q

How do sensory signals travel up to the primary somatosensory cortex using the dorsal column/medial leminiscus system?

A

3 neuron process up the ascending tracts in CNS:

1st neuron ascends in dorsal column
SYNAPSE at medulla
2nd neuron crosses midline moving from medulla to thalamus then SYNAPSES
3rd neuron stretches from thalamus to corresponding part of post-central gyrus (sensory cortex)

50
Q

Why is the dorsal column split with a fissure on either side?

A

To differentiate sensory info coming from lower limb (medial) and upper limb (lateral)

51
Q

What two main tracts are used for sensory signals ascending the spinal cord?

A

Dorsal Column/Medial Leminiscus System

Spinothalamic tract

52
Q

What sensory signals are usually carried up the spinothalamic tracts?

A

pain
temperature
deep pressure

53
Q

How do most somatomotor signals from the pre-central gyrus descend the spinal cord?

A

Via the Lateral or Ventral/Anterior corticospinal tracts

54
Q

Describe how motor signals reach the spinal cord from the brain

A

1st neuron extends all the way from pre-central gyrus to level of effect

May cross side at medulla (85%- lateral corticospinal tract) or may continue on same side until desired level (15%- ventral corticospinal tract)

SYNAPSE at desired level

55
Q

What is the internal capsule and what symptom would be experienced after a stroke in this area of the brain?

A
  • White matter pathway (esp. for corticospinal tract)
  • Carries a lot of motor and sensory information
  • stroke here can result in a lack of descending control of the corticospinal tract
    => hyperflexion of upper limbs
56
Q

What is the function of the tectospinal tract and what part of the brain does it involve?

A
  • Input to cervical segments
  • from tectum in posterior midbrain, down to spinal cord
  • mediates head/neck movement in response to visual stimuli
57
Q

What is the reticulospinal tract and what movements can it facilitate?

A

Tract between reticular formation (centre of brainstem) to spinal cord

Fibres in reticular formation in pons do EXTENSOR movements
Fibres in medulla do FLEXOR

58
Q

What is the vestibulospinal tract responsible for and where does it span from?

A
  • From vestibular nuclei in pons and medulla

- Excites“antigravity” extensor muscles for an impulse response (e.g. after being pushed by someone)

59
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in motor movement?

A
  • Feedback to Motor cortex via the thalamus

- helps improve and adapt movement the body is making

60
Q

What are the 3 lobes of the cerebellum?

A

Anterior
Posterior (largest)
Flocculonodular lobe

61
Q

The cerebellum is known as a sub-tentorial organ. What does this term mean?

A

This is because it sits under the tentorium cerebelli

62
Q

How is the cerebellum attached to the brainstem?

A

3 Peduncles of white matter
Superior
Middle (largest)
Inferior

63
Q

The small bulges on the cerebellum are not called “gyri” like those in the cerebrum. What are they referred to as?

A

Folia

64
Q

Describe the distribution of grey and white matter seen when the cerebellum is cut

A

Grey matter towards outside
White matter in “tree” shape in centre
DEEP grey matter visible inside the white matter centre

65
Q

What are the 3 layers of the cerebellar cortex?

A

Molecular layer (outer)
Purkinje cell layer (middle)
Granule cell layer (inner)

66
Q

What can be found in the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex?

A

Lots of synapses

67
Q

How does the purkinje layer communicate with the rest of the brain?

A

Has giant cell neurons with large axons which extend down to deep nuclei below the granular layer

These nuclei can then communicate with the rest of the brain

68
Q

What is contained in the granular cell layer that is easily seen on histology?

A

Lots of neurons

69
Q

Why does the pons swell anteriorly?

A

It is receiving/giving a lot of information from/to the cerebellum posteriorly

70
Q

What is the function of the flocculonodular lobe?

A

It receives vestibular info which it feeds back to the brainstem

71
Q

If one side of the cerebrum is affected by disease, normally the contralateral side of the body is affected. Is this the case with the cerebellum?

A

NO

The cerebellar hemispheres control the ipsilateral side of the body

72
Q

What does the central vermis in the cerebellum control?

A

Autonomic movements that we dont think about

73
Q

Describe the difference in effect a lesion may have depending on where in the cerebellum it is found?

A

Midline - affects posture control (no paralysis/weak)
Unilateral - ipsilateral affect on body
Bilateral dysfunction- ataxic gait, dysarthria (unclear speech)

74
Q

What are the main functions of the basal ganglia when providing the motor cortex with feedback?

A

Facilitate purposeful movement

Inhibit any unwanted movement

75
Q

What 5 components make up the Basal Ganglia?

A 
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus
Subthalamic nucleus
Substantia nigra
76
Q

How does the substantia nigra appear in the midbrain?

A

Looks like a black line

“black substance”

77
Q

In what condition would the substantia nigra potentially NOT be present?

A

Parkinsons
Substantia nigra is only present when dopamine is being produced - the black colour comes from a by-product of this reaction

78
Q

How does the basal ganglia signal to the motor cortex to enhance useful movement?

A

Direct Pathway:

=> Enhances outflow of thalamus, enhancing the desired movement

79
Q

How does the basal ganglia signal to the motor cortex to inhibit a certain type of movement?

A

Indirect Pathway:

=> Inhibits outflow of thalamus

80
Q

Lesions in the basal ganglia cause what type of symptoms?

A

CAUSE CONTRALATERAL SYMPTOMS

  • changes in muscle tone
  • dyskinesias (abnormal, involuntary movements)
    e. g. tremor, chorea (rapid, asymmetrical movements of distal limbs) , myoclonus (muscle jerks)
81
Q

What 2 disorders are associated with the basal ganglia, and how do they present differently?

A

Parkinson’s
Signs: akinesia, rigidity and resting tremor

Huntington’s:
Signs: chorea and progressive dementia

82
Q

Why is the optic nerve considered more like the CNS?

A
  • It is myelinated by oligodendrocytes rather than schwann cells
  • Extends to back of eye with meninges covering like in the brain
83
Q

Cranial Nerve 1 has no motor function. TRUE/FALSE?

A

TRUE
Only sensory
Vesicles on end of neurons pick up smell in olfactory mucosa

84
Q

Where in the brain is the CN III Oculomotor nucleus found?

A

In the centre of the midbrain (centre deals with motor)

85
Q

Why does CN IV exit the brain posteriorly after having crossed the midline?

A

It curves round the cerebral aqueduct before exiting the contralateral part of posterior brain

86
Q

Where is the CN VI abducens nucleus located?

A

At base of midbrain, behind the 4th ventricle

87
Q

Why do CN III, IV, VI and XII all exit the brain medially?

A

This is where their nuclei are in the brainstem

The all have motor portions => due to development they are found medially in brainstem

88
Q

What are the 3 main parts of the trigeminal nucleus?

A

Spiral nucleus - extends downwards (pain/temp)
Principle nucleus - in middle at entry (touch/vibration)
Mesencephalic - upwards (chewing proprioception)

89
Q

What does the trigeminal motor nucleus control and where is is located?

A
  • Some muscles of mastication e.g. tensor veli palatini

- located behind principle nucleus

90
Q

What are the 3 components of the facial nerve, and what nucleus is used to facilitate each?

A
  1. Motor (muscles facial expression). = Facial Motor nucleus
  2. Parasymp. = Spinal Trigeminal Nucleus/ salivatory
  3. Taste = Solitary nucleus
91
Q

What are the 4 components of CN IX glossopharyngeal and what nucleus is used to facilitate each?

A

Taste = Solitary
Small region of somatosensation in ear = Spinal trigeminal nucleus
Parasymp. = Salivatory
Innervation of pharyngeal muscles = Nucleus ambiguus

92
Q

What are the 4 components of the vagus nerve and what nuclei are used for these?

A

Parasymp. = Dorsal (motor) Nucleus
Taste = Solitary
Sensation around ear = Spinal trigeminal nucleus
Motor to some pharyngeal muscles = Nucleus Ambiguus

93
Q

What shape is adopted by the solitary nucleus to provide space for many different Cranial Nerves to associate with it?

A

V’ shape from upper to lower medulla

94
Q

What are the 3 tubes which form the spiraling cochlea?

A

Scala vestibuli, scala media and scala tympani

95
Q

How many turns does the cochlea make in the ear?

A

2.5

96
Q

What organ inside the cochlea is important for sounds interpretation?

A

Organ of corti

97
Q

What does the organ of corti sit on top of and how does this help us to hear sound?

A

Sits on top of basilar membrane (hair cells poke up from here)

Basilar membrane varies in length and stiffness throughout cochlea => makes tip of cochlea more specific for low pitch and base more specific to high pitch

98
Q

WHat other membrane brushes against the “hair” cells to turn vibrations into electrical impulses?

A

Tectorial membrane

99
Q

What carries electrical impulses from the stimulated hair cells to the cochlear nerve?

A

Spiral ganglion

100
Q

Describe how input from the spiral ganglion makes it way up to the primary auditory cortex

A

1st neuron goes from spiral ganglion to ventral and dorsal cochlear nuclei (at inferior cerebellar peduncle of brainstem)

SYNAPSE

2nd neuron ascends BILATERALLY to the superior olivary nucleus

SOME SYNAPSE BUT NOT ALL

2nd/3rd neurons travel upwards to Inferior Colliculus where ALL SYNAPSE

These signals progress up to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

AND finally to the primary auditory cortex

101
Q

What two structures that are passed through in the auditory pathway of the brainstem help to localise sound?

A 
Lateral leminiscus (white matter between nuclei)
Superior olivary nucleus

They help us tell what time sound arrived at each ear, to orientate what side the sound originated from

102
Q

Where in the brain is the primary auditory cortext located and how is it organised?

A

Located superiorly in temporal lobe

Antero-lateral part contains low frequency sounds
Posteromedial part deals with high freq. sounds

103
Q

The vestibular pathway has more nuclei in the brainstem than the cochlear pathway. TRUE/FALSE?

A

TRUE

104
Q

Damage to which specific named areas of the brain can cause “Aphasia” i.e. an inability to use language?

A

Broca’s area:

  • difficulty producing language
  • say most important words in a sentence
  • no difficulty comprehending language

Wernicke’s area

  • difficulty comprehending language
  • speak words out of order/ use meaningless words.
105
Q

Where does the vestibular nuclei connect to?

A

Thalamus - for conscious movement
CN III, IV and VI - for eyes to adapt to movement
Cerebellum
Lateral vestibular nucleus connects straight to spinal cord

106
Q

Where in the brain is the primary vestibular cortex located?

A

THERE IS NO PRIMARY VESTIBULAR CORTEX

107
Q

Why does the fovea have more acute vision than the rest of the retina?

A

layers are thinner => light easily hits photoreceptor cells

108
Q

Where does the optic tract extend back to in the thalamus?

A

Lateral geniculate nucleus (for sight)

remember the medial geniculate nucleus is for auditory info

109
Q

Does the primary visual cortex have a large or small association area?

A

Large

110
Q

How is the visual cortex arranged at the calcarine sulcus in reference to our visual field?

A

Lower portion of our visual field is processed in the gyrus ABOVE the calcarine sulcus

Upper portion of our visual field = gyrus BELOW

Central vision = posterior part of these gyri
peripheral vision = anterior part of these gyri

111
Q

Signals from the upper visual field have to loop around what structure embedded in the cerebral hemispheres?

A

lateral ventricle

this is called “Meyer’s Loop”

112
Q

What two areas of the brain control eye movement?

A

Visual cortex and frontal eye field (motor area in frontal lobe)

113
Q

What type of eye movement is controlled by the frontal eye field?

A

“Command” movements (e.g. telling someone to look in a particular direction = jumpy/quick movements)

114
Q

What type of eye movement is controlled by the visual cortex?

A

smooth “Tracking” movement

115
Q

What nucleus is responsible for the bilateral response in the pupillary light reflex?

A

Edinger-Westphal Nucleus

NEUROLOGY (29 decks)

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