1
Q
What is a virus described as in Chapter 13?
A
A virus is a parasite that needs a fully developed particle to cause infection.
2
Q
What is the fully developed particle that can cause infection called?
A
The fully developed particle that can cause infection is called a virion.
3
Q
What is another term used for a virion in the lecture?
A
A virion is also called an infectious particle (IP).
4
Q
What does the abbreviation IP stand for in virology?
A
IP stands for fully developed infectious particle.
5
Q
What does a virion contain that allows it to cause infection?
A
A virion contains its own genome.
6
Q
What type of genome can a virus have?
A
A virus can have either DNA or RNA.
7
Q
What happens in DNA viruses according to the lecture notes?
A
DNA copies into RNA and then into protein.
8
Q
How do RNA viruses differ in their genetic process?
A
RNA viruses go the other way around.
9
Q
What type of virus is Human Immunodeficiency Virus?
A
Human Immunodeficiency Virus is an RNA virus.
10
Q
How does a virus protect its genome?
A
A virus protects its genome by covering it in a capsid.
11
Q
What is a capsid made of?
A
A capsid is made of proteins.
12
Q
What are the functions of the capsid?
A
The capsid is used for attachment, transmission, and containment of the genetic material.
13
Q
Why is it important for viral genetic material to be contained within a capsid?
A
Because the virus does not want its genetic material flying around and needs it protected inside the capsid.
14
Q
What is the viral envelope made of?
A
The viral envelope is made of proteins, phospholipids, and carbohydrates.
15
Q
What is the function of the viral envelope?
A
The envelope provides an added layer of protection.
16
Q
Which viruses mentioned in the lecture are enveloped viruses?
A
Influenza virus and Human Immunodeficiency Virus are enveloped viruses.
17
Q
Which viruses mentioned in the lecture have spikes?
A
Influenza virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and COVID virus all have spikes.
18
Q
What is the name of the hemagglutination spike?
A
The hemagglutination spike is called the HA spike.
19
Q
What is the name of the neuraminidase spike?
A
The neuraminidase spike is called the NA spike.
20
Q
What is the function of the HA spike?
A
The HA spike is used to attach and penetrate.
21
Q
What is the function of the NA spike? Neuraminidase Spike
A
The NA spike is used to leave the host cell.
22
Q
What four structural components does the Human Immunodeficiency Virus virion contain?
A
- Genome
- Capsid
- Envelope
- Spikes
one of the most mutated viruses
23
Q
Why was Human Immunodeficiency Virus described as one of the most mutated viruses?
A
Because it has a genome, capsid, envelope, and spikes, making it structurally complex.
24
Q
How many genomes does HIV have?
A
Two identical RNA genomes
25
What forms the capsid of HIV?
The capsid is completely formed by its own genetic protein
26
Is the envelope of Human Immunodeficiency Virus fully formed?
Yes
27
What are the names of the HIV Virus spike proteins mentioned?
GP41 and GP120
28
What are viral spikes made up of?
Viral spikes are made up of carbohydrates and proteins.
29
What does the strain name H3N2 represent?
the number of HA spikes and NA spikes
30
What are other influenza strain examples mentioned in the lecture?
H1N1 and H5N1.
31
What determines the naming of COVID strains according to the lecture?
COVID strains are named differently because their spikes change over time.
32
How many RNA strands does HIV contain?
two identical strands of RNA
33
What special enzyme does HIV contain?
Reverse transcriptase
34
What does reverse transcriptase allow Human Immunodeficiency Virus to do?
Reverse transcriptase allows RNA to be converted into DNA.
35
What group does HIV belong to?
retroviruses
36
Why was HIV described as unique in terms of its genome?
it has two identical RNA strands, not just one
37
What structural components are present in the Human Immunodeficiency Virus virion?
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus virion has a capsid, an envelope, and spikes.
38
What color was used to represent the capsid of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the diagram?
The capsid was shown in blue.
39
What color was used to represent the envelope of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the diagram?
The envelope was shown in yellow.
40
Where are the spikes located on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus virion?
The spikes are located on the surface of the virion.
41
Why did the professor describe Human Immunodeficiency Virus as a good example of a complete virion?
Because it contains a genome, capsid, envelope, and spikes.
42
How many Human Immunodeficiency Virus virions are required to infect a person?
One virion.
43
Why did the professor say Human Immunodeficiency Virus is “such a bad virus”?
Because it can cause infection with only one virion and has practically no cure.
44
How many people have HIV currently?
37.7 million people
45
What is transcription?
Transcription is the copying of DNA into RNA.
46
In transcription, how many DNA strands are used?
One DNA strand is used.
47
Why is only one DNA strand used during transcription?
Only one DNA strand is used because RNA is single-stranded.
48
Why is Human Immunodeficiency Virus classified as a retrovirus?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus is classified as a retrovirus because it performs reverse transcription.
49
What does the term “retro” mean in retrovirus?
“Retro” means that transcription is turned backwards.
50
What memory trick did the professor mention regarding RNA and retrovirus?
The professor mentioned adding “O” to RNA to remember “retrovirus family.”
51
What is the normal direction of transcription in cells?
The normal direction of transcription is DNA → RNA.
52
What is the direction of genetic copying in Human Immunodeficiency Virus?
In Human Immunodeficiency Virus, RNA → DNA.
53
What type of RNA genome does HIV have?
single-stranded RNA (ssRNA)
54
What key viral enzyme is required for reverse transcription in Human Immunodeficiency Virus?
Reverse transcriptase.
55
What enters the host cell when HIV infects a cell?
Viral single-stranded RNA enters the host cell.
56
What happens first during reverse transcription inside the host cell?
Reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA into DNA
57
Why can viral DNA not remain single-stranded long-term?
DNA cannot exist as single-stranded long-term.
58
What happens in the second step of reverse transcription?
single-stranded DNA into double-stranded DNA
59
What is the final DNA product formed during reverse transcription?
Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA).
60
Why did the professor warn students not to simplify reverse transcription into one step?
Because it is a two-step process, not a single-step conversion.
61
What happens after HIV enters the host cell?
The virus releases all the needed components
62
What occurs after the viral components are released into the host cell?
Reverse transcription occurs to create viral double-stranded DNA.
63
Where does the double-stranded DNA go after reverse transcription?
into the nucleus
64
What happens when double-stranded DNA reaches the nucleus?
The virus inserts its DNA into the middle of human DNA
65
What did the professor call the stage where viral DNA inserts into human DNA?
The professor called this stage crucial.
66
What key step can prevent progression of HIV?
If reverse transcription can be prevented, progression can be prevented
67
Do students need to memorize the names of drugs used to prevent reverse transcription?
No, students do not need to memorize drug names because this is not a pharmacology exam.
68
What is the provirus stage in HIV?
When viral DNA is integrated into human DNA
69
What does it mean when viral DNA becomes a provirus?
It means the host cell will be used as a machine to produce new virus.
70
What happens to the infected cell during continuous production of new virions in HIV?
The cell keeps producing new baby virions.
71
What happens after new HIV virions are produced?
The new virions are released and infect more cells
72
What is the result of continuous virion production?
The infection cycle continues.
73
What does it mean when the provirus becomes latent?
Latent means the provirus can hide inside cells.
74
What happens during latency instead of constant production of virions?
The virus can hide and later emerge.
75
Does latency prevent virion production?
No, it eventually still results in new virions.
76
How did the professor describe both continuous production and latency outcomes?
The professor said either way, it is not a good scenario.
77
What can the provirus potentially do to the host cell? (besides producing new virions)
Turn the cell into a cancer cell
78
What specific cancer is associated with HIV?
Kaposi sarcoma
79
How was Kaposi sarcoma described in the lecture?
It was described as a rare cancer of the skin and blood vessels.
80
Is there a cure for Kaposi sarcoma according to the lecture?
The professor said there is no cure.
81
What important infection detail was mentioned about Kaposi sarcoma?
Kaposi sarcoma is linked to co-infection with a herpes virus.
82
Why do patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection develop many other infections?
Because the immune system weakens.
83
How is Human Immunodeficiency Virus classified according to the lecture?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus is classified not as a disease, but as a syndrome.
84
What is the definition of a syndrome?
A syndrome is a collection of symptoms.
85
In which type of cells does the provirus mainly exist?
T cells
86
Which type of T cells are targeted by HIV?
T helper cells
87
What other name is used for T helper cells?
CD4 cells
88
What else are T helper cells called?
CD4 cells
89
What is the key takeaway regarding the target cells of HIV?
CD4 cells are the main target
90
What analogy did the professor use to explain Human Immunodeficiency Virus progression?
The professor used a train model analogy.
91
In the train model, what does viral load represent?
Viral load represents the speed of the train.
92
**Train Anaolgy** - What does viral load mean in HIV?
Viral load is the number of virions present.
93
What happens in the train model when there are more virions present?
More virions mean higher speed.
94
In the train model, what does CD4 count represent?
CD4 count represents the distance you will travel.
95
What does CD4 count indicate?
resistance and immune strength
96
How does CD4 count relate to progression of AIDS?
CD4 count relates to how long it will take until full AIDS develops
97
How long does it take to develop AIDS after HIV?
approximately 1 to 10 years
98
Stage A in HIV
primary infection stage
99
CD4 count: Stage A primary infection
CD4 count = at least 500 cells per mm³ of blood
100
CD4 count: a person without HIV
CD4 = 1000 cells per mm³
101
CD4 count: very healthy person
3000 cells per mm3
102
Description of healthy people in relation to CD4 levels
Healthy people were described as those who eat well, sleep well, and are active.
103
CD4 cells lost during Stage A primary infection
There is a 50% loss of CD4 cells during primary infection
104
Symptom of Stage A primary infection
Lymph nodes swell **lymphadenopathy**
105
Red line on the Stage A infection graph
The red line represents virions in the blood rising early after infection.
106
Point at which the red line begins to rise on the graph
The red line begins rising at zero weeks, which represents the infection point.
107
Purple line on the Stage A infection graph
The purple line represents the body trying hard to make antibodies (Ig molecules).
108
What is clinical latency in HIV?
a stage during or after early infection in which the virus hides and can later emerge
109
When can clinical latency occur in HIV?
during or after the early primary infection stage
110
What does the term “latency” mean in the context of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Latency means hiding and emerging.
111
How long can latency last after primary HIV?
for years after primary infection
112
Is the virus eliminated during clinical latency in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
No, the virus is not gone during clinical latency.
113
Why is the virus not gone during clinical latency in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The virus is not gone because it exists as provirus hiding inside cells.
114
What CD4 count defines Stage B?
Stage B - CD4 count between 200 and 499 cells per mm³
115
What is the pattern between viral load and CD4 count during Stage B?
During Stage B, viral load increases while CD4 count decreases.
116
How does the train model apply to Stage B?
In Stage B, the train speed increases (viral load increases) while the travel distance decreases (CD4 count decreases).
117
What symptoms beyond lymphadenopathy were emphasized during Stage B?
Persistent fever and persistent diarrhea
118
What did the professor note about the persistent diarrhea seen in Stage B progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The professor noted that you cannot ever really treat this kind of diarrhea because it is always there.
119
What condition may occur during Stage B?
Gastroenteritis
120
What viral condition may appear during Stage B?
Shingles
121
What type of overgrowth may occur in the oral and vaginal mucosa during Stage B?
Overgrowth in the oral and vaginal mucosa may occur, implying fungal or yeast overgrowth.
122
What pre-cancer or cancer risk in women was mentioned during Stage B progression in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
There is increased risk of pre-cancer or cancer in the cervix or cervical region.
123
What can fungus in the throat or mouth progress toward during Stage B progression in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Fungus in the throat or mouth can progress toward Stage C.
124
Stage C in HIV
Stage C is (AIDS)
125
CD4 count that defines Stage C (AIDS) ?
Stage C:
CD4 count = below 200 per mm³
126
What happens to the patient when CD4 count falls below 200 in Stage C?
When CD4 count is this low, the patient is immunodeficient.
127
Conditions that appear when a patient becomes immunodeficient in Stage C
Opportunistic infections and cancers appear
128
Examples of infections and cancers listed during Stage C
- Kaposi sarcoma
- tuberculosis
- life-threatening pneumonia
- meningitis
- 'all kinds of things.'
129
Viral load example given during Stage C
Viral load can reach 10⁶ virions per mL plasma, which equals 1,000,000 virions per mL.
130
What did the professor emphasize about 1 milliliter of plasma in Stage C
1 mL is tiny but can contain approximately 1 million copies of the virus
131
What happens to antibody production during end-stage immune collapse in Stage C of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection
The antibody line goes to approximately zero.
132
How did the professor describe the immune system at end-stage Stage C of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection
The professor stated that the body 'quits' both the antibody system and the cell-mediated system.
133
Approximately how long does it take to progress to full Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome according to the professor
It takes approximately 10 years to progress to full AIDS, depending on the patient.
134
What happens to viral load as Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection progresses toward death
Viral load keeps rising until death.
135
What is the main treatment principle for Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The main treatment principle is to use a cocktail of antiviral drugs.
136
Should Human Immunodeficiency Virus antiviral drugs ever be given alone?
No, they should never be given alone and never as a single category.
137
How is the Human Immunodeficiency Virus treatment regimen determined for a patient?
The regimen is tailored (“cookie cut”) to the patient by the healthcare provider and pharmacist.
138
What class of drugs was specifically mentioned in Human Immunodeficiency Virus treatment related to reverse transcription?
Reverse transcriptase inhibitors were mentioned.
139
What is zidovudine?
Zidovudine is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor
also called AZT (azidothymidine) and ZDV
140
What other reverse transcriptase inhibitor was mentioned in lecture?
Lamivudine was mentioned.
141
What common label was mentioned for lamivudine?
3TC
142
What is the Human Immunodeficiency Virus antiviral cocktail called?
The cocktail is called HAART.
143
What does HAART stand for?
Highly
Efficient
Active
Reverse
Transcriptase
Cocktail
144
What was the older name for HAART?
It used to be called Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy.
145
What did the professor say about the naming of HAART today?
The professor said that now sometimes they just call it HAART “with one A,” and both versions are fine.
146
What is the biggest transmitter of Human Immunodeficiency Virus according to the professor?
Blood and blood products are the biggest transmitter of Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
147
What does blood and blood products include in the transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus?
It includes transfused blood, especially before screening was implemented.
148
Is blood still considered a high risk for Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission today?
Yes, screening is now stringent, but blood remains the highest risk route.
149
What quantity range was given for HIV in blood?
10 virions to approximately 1000 virions per mm³ of blood
150
What was the professor’s main point about infected blood entering another person?
If infected blood enters someone, infection is extremely likely.
151
What is the second major route of Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission mentioned in lecture?
Sexual transmission through semen.
152
What viral quantity was given for HIV in semen?
50 infectious particles per mL (virions per mL) were mentioned
153
What was discussed about male-to-female transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus?
Male-to-female transmission was discussed as highly likely with those viral counts.
154
Can females transmit Human Immunodeficiency Virus sexually?
Yes, females can transmit the virus because vaginal secretions can carry the virus.
155
How can Human Immunodeficiency Virus be transmitted from mother to baby?
It can be transmitted through blood and breast milk.
156
Is breast milk protective against Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission?
No, breast milk is not protective and can transmit the virus.
157
What main topics did the professor summarize as covered in the Human Immunodeficiency Virus lecture?
The professor summarized the coverage as structure, infection cycle, stages, and transmission.
158
What is a lytic infection?
A lytic infection is an acute infection.
159
What does “lytic” mean in a viral infection?
Lytic means the virus destroys or kills the host cell.
160
How did the professor describe lytic infection in terms of severity?
The professor said this is “literally” the best kind to get.
161
Why did the professor say a lytic infection is the best kind to get?
It is considered the best kind because the virus does not stay in your cells long-term.
162
What example was given to represent a lytic (acute) viral infection?
The common cold.
163
How long does the misery from a common cold usually last?
The misery lasts about 5 to 7 days.
164
What happens to virion levels during a common cold infection?
Virions are high at peak infection.
165
What did the professor say about infecting others during peak common cold infection?
You likely infect family members at peak.
166
What happens to infected cells during a lytic common cold infection?
The infected cells die and then you recover.
167
What specific example did the professor give about how the common cold affects cells?
The cold kills nose cells, which leads to nasal secretions and then recovery.
168
What is a persistent viral infection?
A persistent viral infection is one that does not kill the host cell.
169
How long can a persistent viral infection last?
A persistent infection can last months or years.
170
What example was given of a persistent viral infection?
Measles was given as an example.
171
What major consequence of persistent measles infection was emphasized in lecture?
Brain degeneration was emphasized.
172
What can happen to neurons during persistent measles infection?
Neurons can be destroyed.
173
What can destruction of neurons during persistent measles infection lead to?
It can lead to death.
174
Why did the professor link persistent measles infection to vaccination?
The professor linked it to vaccination because measles can persist and cause serious long-term damage.
175
What is a latent viral infection?
A latent infection is one in which the virus hides and then reactivates periodically.
176
What pattern does a latent viral infection follow?
The pattern is peaks → comes down → hides → returns months later → peaks again.
177
What examples were given of latent viral infections?
Shingles and cold sores (fever blisters) were given as examples.
178
Where do cold sores or fever blisters commonly appear?
They appear on the outer margin of the lip.
179
Why will creams not remove the virus in a latent infection?
Creams will not remove the virus because the virus is latent and hiding inside cells.
180
What is cancer transformation in viral infection?
Cancer transformation is when a virus causes a normal cell to become a cancer cell.
181
What example of virus-associated cancer was mentioned in lecture?
Burkitt’s lymphoma was mentioned.
182
What is Burkitt’s lymphoma?
Burkitt’s lymphoma is a fast-growing tumor of the jaw.
183
Who discovered Burkitt’s lymphoma?
It was discovered by Denis Burkitt.
184
Who proved that Burkitt’s lymphoma was viral in origin?
Epstein and Barr proved it was viral.
185
What virus is responsible for Burkitt’s lymphoma?
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is responsible.
186
What family does Epstein–Barr virus belong to?
Epstein–Barr virus belongs to the herpes virus family and is classified as herpes virus #4.
187
What additional cancers were mentioned as being associated with Epstein–Barr virus?
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (nose and throat cancer) and oral hairy leukoplakia (oral mucosa cancer) were mentioned.
188
What did the professor note about oral hairy leukoplakia in relation to Epstein–Barr virus?
The professor said it is common.
189
How many Human Immunodeficiency Virus virions are required to cause infection?
Only one Human Immunodeficiency Virus virion is required to get infected.
190
What is the definition of transcription?
Transcription is copying DNA into RNA.
191
What is reverse transcription in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Reverse transcription is when single-stranded RNA is copied into DNA.
192
What happens after Human Immunodeficiency Virus single-stranded RNA is copied into DNA?
The enzyme reverse transcriptase helps convert it into double-stranded DNA.
193
What classification is given to viruses that perform reverse transcription?
They are classified as retroviruses.
194
What is a provirus in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
A provirus is viral double-stranded DNA inserted into the host DNA.
195
What are the three possible outcomes once Human Immunodeficiency Virus reaches the provirus stage?
The outcomes are production of new virions, latency, or cancer transformation.
196
Which immune cells does Human Immunodeficiency Virus attack?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus attacks T cells.
197
What are T helper cells also called?
T helper cells are also called CD4 cells.
198
What is the primary target of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the immune system?
The virus attacks CD4 cells.
199
What is the T helper (TH) cell count during Stage A of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The T helper cell count is approximately 500 TH cells per mm³ of blood.
200
What is the assumed healthy T helper cell count before Stage A infection?
A healthy person should have at least 1000 TH cells per mm³.
201
What T helper cell count might a very healthy person have?
A very healthy person could have approximately 3000 TH cells per mm³.
202
What clinical sign is seen in Stage A of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Lymphadenopathy.
203
What is the T helper cell count range during Stage B of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The T helper cell count is between 200 and 499 cells per mm³.
204
What clinical sign continues into Stage B of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Lymphadenopathy.
205
What additional symptoms occur in Stage B of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Fever and diarrhea.
206
What did the professor emphasize about the diarrhea seen in Stage B?
You cannot treat this diarrhea because it is always there.
207
What abnormal growth may appear in women during Stage B of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Cancerous or precancerous growth in the cervical region.
208
What is the T helper cell count during Stage C of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
The T helper cell count is below 200 cells per mm³.
209
What infections commonly appear during Stage C of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection?
Tuberculosis, yeast infections, and pneumonia.
210
What are the three names used for the drug zidovudine?
Zidovudine, AZT, and ZDV.
211
What other drug was mentioned for Human Immunodeficiency Virus treatment?
Lamivudine (3TC).
212
What is the recommended Human Immunodeficiency Virus treatment combination?
Three drugs from two classes, called the HART cocktail.
213
What does HART stand for according to your notes?
Highly affective.
214
What viral load range was given for Human Immunodeficiency Virus in blood?
10–1000 virions per mm³.
215
What viral load range was given for Human Immunodeficiency Virus in semen?
1–50 infectious particles per mL.
216
What is a lytic infection?
A lytic infection kills the host cell.
217
What is a persistent viral infection?
A persistent infection does not kill the host cell.
218
What example of a persistent infection was mentioned?
Measles.
219
What organ was emphasized as being affected in persistent measles infection?
The brain.
220
What is a latent infection?
A latent infection hides and then reactivates.
221
What examples were given of latent infections?
Shingles, cold sores, fever blisters.
222
What is cancer transformation in viral infection?
It is when a normal cell becomes a cancer cell.
223
What cancer example was given in lecture?
Burkitt’s lymphoma.
224
What is Burkitt’s lymphoma described as?
A fast-growing tumor of the jaw.
225
Which virus is associated with Burkitt’s lymphoma?
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV).
226
What does the “E” in Epstein–Barr virus stand for?
Epstein.
227
What does the “B” in Epstein–Barr virus stand for?
Barr, who was Epstein’s student.
228
Who discovered the virus associated with Burkitt’s lymphoma?
Epstein and Barr.
229
Which herpes virus number is Epstein–Barr virus classified as?
Herpes virus #4.
230
What additional cancer was mentioned as being caused by Epstein–Barr virus?
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
231
What type of genetic material do viruses contain?
Viruses contain DNA or RNA.
232
Do viruses contain both DNA and RNA at the same time?
No, viruses contain either DNA or RNA.
233
What protective structure surrounds the viral genome?
A protein coat surrounds the viral genome.
234
What is the protein coat of a virus called?
The protein coat is called the capsid.
235
Are all viruses enclosed by an envelope?
No, some viruses are enclosed by an envelope.
236
What is the envelope in viruses?
The envelope is an additional outer layer that encloses some viruses.
237
Do all viruses have spikes?
No, some viruses have spikes.
238
Where does HIV replicate?
HIV only replicates in humans.
239
What does HIV destroy in the human body?
HIV destroys the human immune system.
240
How many major types of HIV are there?
There are two major types of HIV.
241
Where is HIV-1 prevalent?
HIV-1 is prevalent in the United States and Europe.
242
Where is HIV-2 prevalent?
HIV-2 is prevalent in West Africa.
243
From what virus may Human immunodeficiency virus have arisen?
Human immunodeficiency virus may have arisen from mutations of the simian immunodeficiency virus.
244
Where is AIDS currently found according to the slide?
AIDS is now found throughout the world.
245
Which body fluids are more infective than other secretions?
Blood and semen are more infective than other secretions.
246
What other sources of HIV transmission are listed on the slide?
Vaginal secretions and breast milk.
247
What type of treatment is currently used to reduce viral replication in HIV infection?
A “cocktail” of several antiviral drugs is currently used to reduce viral replication.
248
Which antiviral drugs are listed on the slide?
Zidovudine and lamivudine.
249
What does the slide state about vaccine development for HIV?
Vaccine development is difficult.
250
What major category is listed under diagnosis and treatment on this slide besides treatment?
Prevention.
Microbiology
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