Why managers must participate in system development (concept logic bundle)
Because ‘right software’ is a business choice (features, priorities, scope). IS projects are risky (many actors, unforeseen conditions, evolving organisations), so success requires BOTH managerial skills (leadership, decisions, prioritisation) AND technical expertise (developers/IT). Core exam logic: you can’t delegate it all to IT—business must co-own the system.
Three development approaches (grouped)
1) Build (custom): firm creates software from scratch. 2) Buy (off-the-shelf): purchase an existing product (ERP/CRM) and adapt it. 3) End-user development: non-professional users build local tools (macros/low-code). Decision logic: choose based on fit, speed, risk, and differentiation.
Build (custom development): definition + advantages (grouped)
Definition: organisation builds its own software from scratch. Advantages: tailored to specific needs, more flexibility/control over evolution, and no licensing fees (you own the code).
Custom build phases (Definition → Build → Implementation) with key activities + critical success factor
Phase 1 Definition: (1) Investigation—identify business problems/opportunities (2) Feasibility analysis—requirements document (what it must do). Phase 2 Build: (1) System design—architecture/hardware/languages/interfaces (2) Programming—write code + documentation (3) Testing—alpha/beta until ‘good enough’. Phase 3 Implementation: (1) Installation—deploy to production hardware (2) Operations—run in real life. Critical point: end-user training + change management are essential; without adoption a ‘good’ system fails.
Buy (off-the-shelf): definition + advantages (grouped)
Definition: purchase an existing product and adapt it. Advantages: faster rollout, economically attractive (shared dev costs), often high quality (mature product + vendor support).
Buying phases (Definition → Build → Implementation) adapted (grouped)
1) Definition: vendor shortlist + clarify requirements + evaluate options. 2) Build: test selected software + customise/configure + bug fixes. 3) Implementation: incremental deployment (staged rollout) + regular vendor updates/maintenance.
End-user development: what it is + when it’s good + main risk (grouped)
Created by end users (Excel macros, small apps, low-code) rather than pro developers. Good for simple, local solutions. Risk: dangerous if it becomes business-critical without governance/control.
Build vs Buy rule (80% logic)
Buy when off-the-shelf meets about ~80% of required functionality. Build only when you need very specific features or strong differentiation. Memory hook: if 80% fits, don’t reinvent.
Agile: why it exists (concept logic)
Agile emerged as a reaction against rigid waterfall thinking: prioritise adaptability, collaboration, and quick delivery of value.
Agile 4 core values (grouped, with ‘priority inversion’ logic)
1) Individuals & interactions over processes & tools. 2) Working software over comprehensive documentation. 3) Customer collaboration over contract negotiation. 4) Responding to change over following a plan. Logic: you still need some tools/docs/contracts/plans, but the priorities are reversed.
Agile principles (selected) condensed into exam-ready bundle
Deliver customer value early & continuously; welcome changing requirements (even late); deliver frequently; business + developers work together daily; prefer face-to-face communication; working software is the main progress measure; self-organising teams produce most value; reflect and adjust regularly (continuous improvement).
Agile project characteristics (grouped)
Iterative: develop while planning (not big design upfront). Small cross-functional teams (dev + business + QA). Frequent customer touchpoints (e.g., product owner). Work split into small chunks (iterations/sprints). Constraint logic: fixed time + fixed resources, scope varies per iteration.
Outsourcing: what it means + location types (grouped)
Outsourcing = using external vendors for development/support/operations. Location types: onshore (same country), nearshore (nearby country), offshore (distant country, often lower cost).
Outsourcing models (4) in one bundle
1) Project-based: vendor delivers a complete system/project. 2) Staff augmentation: external devs temporarily join internal teams. 3) Managed services: vendor runs operations/upgrades as a service. 4) Build–Operate–Transfer (BOT): vendor builds, operates for a period, then transfers ownership/control to the client.
DevOps: definition + purpose (grouped)
DevOps = Development + Operations working as one team (no silos). Purpose: reduce rework, improve collaboration, enable rapid innovation and frequent releases.
CI/CD (DevOps) explained as a single logic bundle
Continuous Integration (CI): integrate and test code changes frequently; automated tests catch problems early. Continuous Delivery (CD): release changes regularly and reliably to pre-prod/prod—small frequent releases instead of rare huge ones. House metaphor: check each room as you build (CI) and start living as rooms finish (CD).
Agile organisation vs Agile enterprise (concept difference)
Agile organisation: multiple agile teams in development/innovation areas. Agile enterprise: agility across the whole company—culture, processes, and strategy adapt, not just IT.
