psych 6

Question 1

Biopsychosocial model of Health Psychology

Answer 1

• maintains the premise ad practices of a medical model by looking at biological problems
• accounts fro the importance of psychological and social factors
• allows for proper assessment, diagnosis and treatment for mental and physical disorders

Question 2

Identify and describe four of the psychological responses to stress discussed in the lecture

Answer 2

• Emotional instability: e.g., irritability and losing temper, hypersensitivity and crying, etc..
• Problem solving difficulties: e.g., trouble making decisions, poor choices, easily frustrated
• Ruminative thinking: obsessively worrying and intrusive disturbing mental images
• Catastrophizing: using extreme absolute language, over-reacting to minor problems, etc.

Question 3

Explain how the Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary (SAM) system operates

Answer 3

• stress is perceived by the cerebral cortex
  
  • signals the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight).
• This stimulates the Adrenal Medulla glands to secrete catecholimines, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
• The effects are raised blood pressure, irregular heart rate, sweating, and constriction of peripheral blood vessels

Question 4

problem-focused and emotion-focused coping

Answer 4

• problem-focused coping is reducing the demands of the stressful situation or expanding the resources available to deal with the stressor
• i.e., dealing directly with the problem or situation
• emotion-focused coping is aimed at controlling the emotional response to the stressful situation

Question 5

Explain and provide an example for the term defensive attribution, and give a reason for why people might use defensive attributions

Answer 5

• Defensive attributions are a tendency to blame (make internal attributions about) victims for their misfortunes
• one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way
  
  • E.g., blaming a rape victim for the clothes she wore or blaming a mugging victim for being out so late, etc..
• People use defensive attributions to create an illusion of safety and to avoid confronting the ugly reality that bad things happen to good people for no reason

Question 6

Briefly explain the procedure and results of the Asch study discussed in class

Answer 6

Subjects had to identify which line matched the target line from a choice of three
- The task was designed to be very easy. There were five confederates that answered out loud first, then the subject answered.
- On some trials, all the confederates answered the same incorrect response. When this occurred 35% of subjects conformed and answered incorrectly as well and the majority of subjects conformed at least one time.
- There was no conformity when the confederates were not unanimous in their answers.

Question 7

What is deindividuation and what are some circumstances where it might occur?

Answer 7

• deindividuation is a loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension that can occur when a situation allows one to feel anonymous
• it can occur when one is in a crowd, or when one is wearing a mask, or wearing a uniform that many others are wearing, etc…

Question 8

List 4 desirable phenomena that can result from being in a group

Answer 8

• Social, moral and language development
• sense of membership and identity
  -charity
  -emotional comfort
  -support
  -social facilitation
• cooperation
• survival

Question 9

Explain the relationship between social support and stress

Answer 9

• Social support is two-way communication where a person can confide their concerns and receive support
• people who have low social support tend to have a decreased lifespan
• social support can buffer a person against the effects of stress allowing them to share their feelings and problems with others who can listen and offer help
• social support is a positive force that allows for shared enjoyment and thus reduces overall susceptibility to stress

Question 10

What is stress

Answer 10

• Stress is a psychobiological process.
• a stimulus (stressors) like catastrophies (earthquake, flood or war), life events (marriage, divorce) and circumstances (poverty, overcrowding).

-A response (strain) both physiological and psychological.

• A process where transactions between the person and environment lead to perceived discrepancies between the demands of the situation and the resources of the person

Question 11

List 8 behavioural responses to stress discussed in class

Answer 11

• procrastination & avoidance
- lowered performance

• increased alcohol & drug use and abuse

• increased use of prescription drugs
• under eating due to apathy, depression
• overeating as an escape

• weight loss

• increased recklessness, gambling

• aggression and criminal acts

• poor relations with family and friends

  -suicide or attempted suicide

Question 12

List 3 positive emotion-focused coping strategies

Answer 12

meditation
social support
individual or group therapy

Question 13

Describe and give an example of a stable and an unstable internal attribution for why you aced your final exam in PSY100

Answer 13

internal attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to personality, traits, or personal dispositions.

• stable internal attribution: I am smart
• unstable internal attribution: I put a lot of effort in

Question 14

What are norms? Provide two examples

Answer 14

norms are the unwritten rules and codes of behavior for a particular society
- e.g., not cutting in line in front of other, eating ice cream with a spoon, not wearing clothes inside out, etc…

Question 15

How does being in a crowd lead to a greater likelihood of committing violent or unacceptable behavior?

Answer 15

• crowds can lead to deindividuation which is a loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension
• When deindividuation is combined with the high states of arousal, and diffusion of responsibility created by being in a crowd, these factors can disinhibit violent or unacceptable behaviors

Question 16

What is Cognitive Dissonance and how does one reduce it

Answer 16

• cognitive dissonance is an aversive state that can arise when our attitudes and our behaviors are not consistent.
• We can reduce dissonance by either changing our behaviors to fit our attitudes or adjusting our attitudes to be consistent with our behaviors

Question 17

In the Aronson and Mills (1959) sex group study discussed in class, how did the researchers get women to come back to the group?

Answer 17

• subjects in the experimental condition were given an embarrassing initiation into the group, thus making them more likely to feel that the group was interesting and useful in order to justify the effort the subjects made to get into the group.

Question 18

Describe Richard Lazarus’ modern view of stress

Answer 18

• stress is a transaction between a person and their environment
• There is a primary appraisal that determines if something is benign or stressful based upon one’s subjective determination of the demands of the situation and the resources available to deal with the situation
• Then there is a secondary appraisal where we determine how to deal with the stressor

Question 19

Describe three ways that we influence the impact of a stressor and provide examples for each

Answer 19

• Behaviourally: e.g., using drugs or practicing meditation
• Cognitively: e.g., engaging in repression or denial, or doing cognitive restructuring or using affirmations
• Emotionally: e.g., falling into despair, self-pity and hopelessness, or being optimistic and hopeful

Question 20

Identify and explain the three stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 20

• Alarm: fight or flight reaction triggered by some stressor.
  
  • Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary (SAM) system is activated and body is readied for extreme action to deal with situation.
• Resistance: stress is prolonged and eventually the Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical (HPA) system is activated in an effort to calm the body and relax the body’s taxed resources and systems
• Exhaustion: if the stressor continues the body’s systems become overburdened and there is a weakening of immune and organ systems

Question 21

List 3 ways to make the use of affirmations more effective

Answer 21

• state affirmations in the positive (out loud, into the mirror)
• write them down on paper
• post them everywhere for repeated viewing

Question 22

Discuss three theories of why behaviours change attitudes

Answer 22

• Self-Presentation (Impression Management): we want others to see that our attitudes and behaviors are consistent i.e., we are not hypocrites
• Self-Justification (Cognitive Dissonance): we want to be and feel consistent with our actions and beliefs (avoids aversive state of dissonance)
• Self-Perception: we observe how we act and form our attitudes to be consistent with our actions

Question 23

List 2 factors that can increase the likelihood of resistance to authority in situations where one believes the authority figure is wrong

Answer 23

• when someone has knowledge, expertise, or experience in the area
• when there is social support or others agreeing to resist as well

Question 24

Describe and give an example of a stable and an unstable external attribution for why you aced your final exam in PSY100

Answer 24

external attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to things inherent in the situation, environment or context, external to the person.

• stable external attribution: the Professor always writes easy tests
• unstable external attribution: the test was really easy

Question 25

Describe the Fundamental Attribution Error and provide an example

Answer 25

- The FAE is the tendency to overestimate internal dispositional factors and underestimate external situational factors when making attributions about the causes of other people’s behaviors. - E.g., I see that the person beside me failed the test, thus I assume it is because they are not very smart and do not take into account any situational factors that may have contributed, like, they had the flu and couldn’t study

Question 26

Give two examples of adaptive ways and two examples of maladaptive ways that one could cognitively influence the impact of a stressor

Answer 26

- Adaptive: do some cognitive restructuring, seek objective views, view stress as a challenge and failure as a learning opportunity, etc… - Maladaptive: use defense mechanisms like denial or rationalization, catastrophize the situation, overreact, allow irrational thinking

Question 27

Explain Lazarus’ concepts of primary and secondary appraisal and give an example for each

Answer 27

- Primary appraisal is a cognitive appraisal of a stressor in the environment as being either benign (irrelevant) or stressful (trouble), - i.e., “Is this a threat to my well being?”. E.g., a paper due is appraised as stressful whereas another assignment is viewed as easy to do. - If the primary appraisal states that the stimuli are trouble, then a secondary appraisal takes place to decide if the person has the necessary resources to deal with the problem, - i.e., “Do I have what it takes to deal with this?” E.g., you decide you can do the assignment if you work hard and dedicate some time to it, or you decide that you can’t do it.

Question 28

Explain how the Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical (HPA) system operates

Answer 28

- the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) which influences the Pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This causes the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids like cortisol that reduce inflammation and help the body return to a normal state after acute stress reactions.

Question 29

List 3 positive problem-focused coping strategies

Answer 29

- Assertiveness/social skills training - Time management - Seek help from others - Deal with the situation or stressor

Question 30

Explain the difference between internal and external attributions

Answer 30

- internal attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to personality, traits, or personal dispositions - external attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to things inherent in the situation, environment or context, external to the person

Question 31

List 3 undesirable phenomena that can result from being in a group

Answer 31

panic, the risky shift, groupthink, social loafing, mob behavior

Question 32

List 4 reasons why we form groups according to Schutz’s Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation

Answer 32

- psychological needs for group formation - inclusion - control - affection

Question 33

Give two examples of adaptive ways and two examples of maladaptive ways that one could emotionally influence the impact of a stressor

Answer 33

- Adaptive: be optimistic, look on the bright side, express emotions openly, share problems with others - Maladaptive: feel hopelessness, helplessness, or self-pity, suppress or hide emotions

Question 34

List 4 of the effects of prolonged exposure to stress

Answer 34

- suppress cellular immune functioning - produces hemodynamic changes (increased heart rate and blood pressure) - provokes irregular heart rhythms - produces neurochemical imbalances (depression, panic disorder) - atherosclerosis - destruction of neurons in the hippocampus (memory impairment, senility)

Question 35

List and explain the three components of Sternberg’s Love Triangle

Answer 35

- Passion:fast developing physiological reaction of desire and lust for another - Intimacy: steadily developing physical and emotional closeness with another Commitment: gradually developing cognitive agreement to be committed partners, including fidelity and resource sharing

Question 36

Which components of Sternberg’s Love Triangle make up Romantic Love, Hollywood Love and Companionate Love?

Answer 36

Romantic Love = intimacy and passion Hollywood Love = passion and commitment Companionate Love = commitment and intimacy

Question 37

According to the lecture, what is a group?

Answer 37

a group is two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as “us”

Question 38

What is Cognitive Dissonance and how does one reduce it?

Answer 38

- cognitive dissonance is an aversive state that can arise when our attitudes and our behaviors are not consistent. - We can reduce dissonance by either changing our behaviors to fit our attitudes or adjusting our attitudes to be consistent with our behaviors.

Question 39

Give an example of both a stable and unstable internal attribution and a stable and unstable external attribution.

Answer 39

- stable internal attribution: I failed the test because I am stupid. - unstable internal attribution: I failed the test because I didn’t study - stable external attribution: I failed the test because the professor always makes unfair tests - unstable external attribution: I failed the test because the test was unfair

Question 40

Explain the three types of stress identified by Lazarus and give an example for each.

Answer 40

- Loss (or harm/loss): when someone loses a loved one or a possession - Threat: anticipated harm from something like worrying someone is going to beat you up or worried that you will get your heart broken, etc… - Challenge: viewing the stressor as an opportunity for growth or a way to expand one’s abilities or competence

Question 41

With regards to making attributions, explain the self-serving bias and provide an example

Answer 41

the self-serving bias occurs when we make internal dispositional attributions for our successes and external situational attributions for our failures. - E.g., I passed the test because I am smart, but I failed the test because it was written unfairly.

Question 42

What is the Mere Exposure effect and how does it contribute to attraction?

Answer 42

- the mere exposure effect states that merely being exposed to something or someone will make us prefer that thing or person over someone or something that we have not been exposed to. - It contributes to attraction by the more we are exposed to someone or something the more familiar it becomes to us and the more likely we are to like it.

Question 43

What are the 4 functions of attitudes discussed in the lectures?

Answer 43

- knowledge function: to help organize and structure the environment - instrumental function: in helping maximize rewards and minimize punishments - ego-defensive function: by helping us deal with internal conflicts and defend against anxiety - value-expressive function: in helping us express ideals important to our self-concept

Question 44

Health Psychology is the educational, research and clinical contribution of Psychology to what three goals

Answer 44

- the promotion and maintenance of health - the prevention and treatment of illness - the analysis and improvement of the health care system and health policy formation

Question 45

Give two examples of adaptive and two examples of maladaptive ways that one could behaviorally influence the impact of a stressor.

Answer 45

- Adaptive: one could seek help (therapy), engage in meditation, learn a new skill, etc… - Maladaptive: one could use drugs or alcohol, gambling, sex, or any distraction

Question 46

List 4 positive emotion-focused coping strategie

Answer 46

- Focused breathing/meditation - Progressive muscle relaxation - Cognitive restructuring - Self hypnosis - Anger management - Thought stopping procedures - Stress inoculation training

Question 47

What are the ABCs of attitudes? (and D) of attitudes?

Answer 47

A = affect (feelings) B = behavior C = cognitions (thoughts) D = disputing beliefs

Question 48

Explain the difference between internal and external attribution

Answer 48

- internal attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to personality, traits, or personal dispositions. - external attributions are inferences made about the causes of behaviors or events that consider the causes as being due to things inherent in the situation, environment or context, external to the person

Question 49

Explain the evolutionary gender differences regarding what makes a person jealous.

Answer 49

men: - more distressed about sexual infidelity than emotional infidelity - throughout evolution men weren't sure the kid they were raising was theirs or if their partner had sex with someone else women: - more distressed about emotional infidelity than sexual infidelity -emotional commitment to someone else created the threat that resources would be diverted to someone else