Microbiology > Ch 8 Metabolic > Flashcards

Ch 8 Metabolic Flashcards

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1
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The biochemical reactions of a cell that involve energy and enzymes

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2
Q

What is the significance of small steps in metabolism?

A

They create useful intermediates

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3
Q

What do bonds represent in metabolic processes?

A

Potential energy

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4
Q

What is anabolism?

A

The process of building bonds

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5
Q

What is catabolism?

A

The process of breaking bonds

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6
Q

What do oxidation and reduction reactions involve?

A

Transfer of electrons

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7
Q

What does ‘Leo goes Ger’ refer to?

A

A mnemonic for remembering oxidation and reduction

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8
Q

What are important electron carriers in cells?

A

NAD* and FAD

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9
Q

What is a defining characteristic of enzymes?

A

They are proteins that end in -ASE

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10
Q

What can denature enzymes?

A

Extreme temperature, pH, salts, ions, radiation, heavy metals, oxidizing agents

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11
Q

What is a holoenzyme?

A

An active complete enzyme consisting of an apoenzyme and cofactors/coenzymes

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12
Q

What does catalysis do?

A

Lowers activation energy to speed up reactions

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13
Q

What is the active site of an enzyme?

A

The region that binds specific substrates

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14
Q

What is a competitive inhibitor?

A

A chemical that blocks the active site and slows reaction rate

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15
Q

What is a non-competitive inhibitor?

A

A chemical that binds to an allosteric site

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16
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

Excess product temporarily blocks an allosteric enzyme in a pathway

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17
Q

What is the structure of ATP?

A

A modified nucleotide: Ribose + Adenine + 3 phosphate groups

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18
Q

What is dephosphorylation?

A

The process that releases energy by converting ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate

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19
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

The process that requires energy to convert ADP and inorganic phosphate back to ATP

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20
Q

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

The direct transfer of a phosphate group to make ATP from a substrate

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21
Q

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A

ATP production via electron carriers and chemiosmosis

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22
Q

What is fermentation?

A

The simplest and oldest respiration process that does not require oxygen

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23
Q

What is the equation for lactic acid fermentation?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2P(i) -> 2ATP + Lactic Acid

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24
Q

What is the equation for ethyl alcohol fermentation?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2P(i) -> 2ATP + 2 Ethyl Alcohols + CO2

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25
What is aerobic respiration?
A type of respiration that requires oxygen
26
What is the equation for aerobic respiration?
Glucose + 6O2 + 38ADP + 38P(i) -> 38ATP + 6H2O + 6CO2
27
What is anaerobic respiration?
A type of respiration that does not require oxygen but uses alternative electron acceptors
28
What are the possible final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration?
SOx, NOx, COx
29
What are alternative nutrients that can be used in respiration?
*Other carbohydrates *Proteins *Lipids
30
What is beta oxidation?
The process of breaking down fatty acids into acetyl CoA
31
What is the total ATP yield from aerobic cellular respiration?
38 ## Footnote This includes ATP produced from glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
32
What is the ATP yield from glycolysis?
2 ATP ## Footnote Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate.
33
What type of ATP production occurs during glycolysis?
Substrate-Level ATP ## Footnote This method directly generates ATP through the transfer of a phosphate group.
34
How many NADH are produced during glycolysis?
2 NADH ## Footnote NADH is produced as glucose is converted to pyruvate.
35
What is the ATP yield from the Krebs cycle?
2 ATP ## Footnote This is produced per cycle as a result of substrate-level phosphorylation.
36
How many NADH are produced per Krebs cycle?
3 NADH ## Footnote NADH is generated during the conversion of various intermediates in the cycle.
37
What is the ATP yield from oxidative phosphorylation in the Krebs cycle?
6 ATP ## Footnote This is calculated based on the NADH and FADH2 generated during the cycle.
38
How many FADH2 are produced per Krebs cycle?
1 FADH2 ## Footnote FADH2 is produced during the conversion of succinate to fumarate.
39
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm ## Footnote Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration, occurring outside the mitochondria.
40
Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
Mitochondria ## Footnote The Krebs cycle occurs within the mitochondrial matrix.
41
What is the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration?
Electron carrier ## Footnote NAD+ accepts electrons during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, becoming NADH.
42
What is the energy investment stage in glycolysis?
2 ATP used ## Footnote The energy investment stage requires ATP to convert glucose into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
43
Fill in the blank: The Krebs cycle produces _____ per cycle.
2 ATP ## Footnote Each turn of the Krebs cycle generates 2 ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
44
True or False: The Krebs cycle produces carbon dioxide as a waste product.
True ## Footnote Carbon dioxide is released during the conversion of isocitrate and alpha-ketoglutarate.
45
What are the main products of the Krebs cycle?
* 2 ATP * 6 NADH * 2 FADH2 * 4 CO2 ## Footnote These products are crucial for the electron transport chain and energy production.
46
What is the significance of the electron transport chain?
Produces ATP via oxidative phosphorylation ## Footnote It uses NADH and FADH2 to generate a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis.
47
What is genetics?
Study of heredity, genes, and how genetic information is expressed and replicated.
48
Define genome.
All genetic material in a cell (chromosomes + plasmids).
49
What is a chromosome?
Structure containing DNA that carries hereditary information.
50
Define gene.
Segment of DNA coding for a functional product (protein or RNA).
51
What does genotype refer to?
Genetic makeup (potential).
52
Define phenotype.
Expressed properties (observed traits).
53
What are the components of DNA?
Nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G).
54
Describe the structure of DNA.
Double helix; strands held by hydrogen bonds (A–T, G–C); strands are antiparallel.
55
What is the process of DNA replication?
Semiconservative; one old strand, one new.
56
What role does DNA polymerase play in DNA replication?
Adds nucleotides to 3’ end.
57
What is the leading strand?
Synthesized continuously.
58
What defines the lagging strand?
Discontinuous; forms Okazaki fragments joined by DNA ligase.
59
What is the origin of replication?
Replication start point.
60
What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
DNA → RNA → Protein.
61
What occurs during transcription?
DNA is converted to mRNA.
62
What occurs during translation?
mRNA is converted to protein.
63
What type of structure is RNA?
Single-stranded, ribose sugar, uracil (U) replaces thymine (T).
64
What is the function of mRNA?
Carries genetic code.
65
What is the role of tRNA?
Carries amino acids to ribosomes.
66
What does rRNA do?
Structural component of ribosomes.
67
What happens when RNA polymerase binds to the promoter?
Synthesizes RNA.
68
Where does transcription occur in prokaryotes?
In cytoplasm.
69
What are codons?
Triplets on mRNA that code for amino acids.
70
How many total codons exist?
64 total; 61 code for amino acids, 3 are stop codons.
71
What is the start codon?
AUG (methionine).
72
What is meant by the genetic code being degenerate?
Multiple codons can specify the same amino acid.
73
Where does translation occur?
At ribosome.
74
Describe the initiation phase of translation.
Ribosome assembles at AUG, tRNA brings methionine.
75
What occurs during the elongation phase of translation?
tRNAs bring amino acids, linked by peptide bonds.
76
What happens during termination in translation?
Stop codon reached → release factor frees polypeptide.
77
What is the role of tRNA's anticodon?
Complementary to mRNA codon.
78
How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression differ?
Prokaryotes: simultaneous transcription & translation in cytoplasm; Eukaryotes: transcription in nucleus, translation in cytoplasm.
79
What is involved in eukaryotic mRNA processing?
- Introns removed - Exons spliced - Addition of 5’ cap and 3’ poly-A tail.
80
What are constitutive genes?
Always on (e.g., glycolysis).
81
What are inducible genes?
Turned on when needed.
82
Define repressible genes.
Turned off when not needed.
83
What is an operon?
Promoter + operator + structural genes.
84
What is the function of the promoter?
Where RNA polymerase binds.
85
What does the operator do?
Controls access of RNA polymerase.
86
What do structural genes code for?
Proteins.
87
What does the regulatory gene code for?
Repressor.
88
Describe the lac operon.
Inducible; no lactose → repressor binds operator → no transcription; lactose present → binds repressor → inactivates it → transcription occurs.
89
What is the trp operon?
Repressible; normally 'on'; excess tryptophan → binds repressor → turns operon 'off.'
90
Define mutation.
Permanent change in DNA.
91
What is a base substitution?
Point mutation: Silent, Missense, Nonsense.
92
What is a frameshift mutation?
Insertion/deletion not in multiples of 3.
93
What are mutagens?
Agents causing mutations.
94
What are examples of chemical mutagens?
- Nucleoside analogs - Frame-shift mutagens.
95
What types of radiation are mutagens?
- Ionizing (X-rays, gamma rays) - UV (thymine dimers).
96
What is photolyase?
Light repair mechanism.
97
What is nucleotide excision repair?
Repair mechanism that removes damaged DNA.
98
What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA repair?
Proofreading.
99
What is positive selection in identifying mutants?
Mutants grow on selective media.
100
What is negative selection?
Mutants detected by replica plating.
101
Define vertical gene transfer.
Parent to offspring.
102
What is horizontal gene transfer?
Between cells of same generation.
103
What is transformation in genetic transfer?
Uptake of naked DNA.
104
What is conjugation?
Plasmid transfer via pilus.
105
What is transduction?
DNA transfer by bacteriophage.
106
What are plasmids?
Small, circular, self-replicating DNA.
107
What is the F plasmid?
Conjugation.
108
What is the R plasmid?
Antibiotic resistance.
109
What is a virulence plasmid?
Pathogenicity.
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