chapter 12

Question 1

what is a problem

Answer 1

• An obstacle between a present state and a goal
• Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
• Difficult to solve

Question 2

what is Gestalt approach

Answer 2

representing a problem in the mind
- restructuring

Question 3

what is restructuring

Answer 3

changes the problem’s representation
- Kohler’s circle problem

Question 4

what is Kohler’s circle problem

Answer 4

a classic Gestalt psychology task that illustrates how “restructuring” a problem can lead to a sudden insight and solution

Question 5

what is the idea of insight

Answer 5

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
- requires to restructure the problem

Question 6

who studied insight

Answer 6

Metcalfe and wiebe

Question 7

what were the experiments used to study insight by Metcalfe and wiebe

Answer 7

triangle problem and chain problem

Question 8

what were the experiments used to study noninsight by Metcalfe and wiebe

Answer 8

algebra
- all about patterns

Question 9

what are warmth judgements

Answer 9

guide people to see if they are close to getting insight

Question 10

how are insight problems solved

Answer 10

suddenly
- light bulb going off

Question 11

how are non-insight problems solved

Answer 11

gradually

Question 12

what is functional fixedness

Answer 12

restricting the use of an object to it’s familiar functions

Question 13

what two problems are seen from functional fixedness

Answer 13

candle and two-string problem

Question 14

what is the candle problem

Answer 14

seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports

Question 15

what is the two-string problem

Answer 15

the function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight

Question 16

what is mental set

Answer 16

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem

Question 17

what is mental set based on

Answer 17

a person’s past experiences with the problem

Question 18

what problem comes from mental set

Answer 18

water jug problem

Question 19

what is the water jug problem

Answer 19

given mental set inhibited participants from using a simpler solution

Question 20

what is the initial state (newell-simon approach)

Answer 20

conditions at the beginning of a problem

Question 21

example of initial state from tower of hanoi

Answer 21

all three discs are on the left peg

Question 22

what is the goal state (newell-simon approach)

Answer 22

solution to the problem

Question 23

example of goal state from tower of hanoi

Answer 23

all three discs are on the right peg

Question 24

what is the intermediate state (newell-simon approach)

Answer 24

conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem

Question 25

example of intermediate state from tower of hanoi

Answer 25

after small disc is moved to the right peg the two large discs are on left peg

Question 26

what is the operators (newell-simon approach)

Answer 26

- actions that take the problem from one state to another - specify which moves are allowed and not - govern by rules

Question 27

example of operators from tower of hanoi

Answer 27

a large dic can't be placed on a smaller one (rule)

Question 28

what is the problem space (newell-simon approach)

Answer 28

all possible states that could occur when solving a problem

Question 29

example of means end anaylsis from tower of hanoi

Answer 29

establish subgoals each of which moves the solution closer to the goal state

Question 30

what is the means end anaylsis (newell-simon approach)

Answer 30

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

Question 31

what is subgoals (newell-simon approach)

Answer 31

small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal - may appear to increase distance to goal state but in the long run result in shortest path

Question 32

example of subgoals from tower of hanoi

Answer 32

to free up medium size disc you need to move small disc from middle peg back to left peg

Question 33

what makes problems difficult to solve

Answer 33

tower of hanoi problem

Question 34

what is the multilated checkerboard problem

Answer 34

conditions differed in how much information was provided about the squares

Question 35

when is the mutliated checkerboard problem easier to solve

Answer 35

when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem

Question 36

what is the think-aloud protocol

Answer 36

say aloud what one is thinking - shifts in how one perceives elements of a problem

Question 37

how do we use analogies to solve problems

Answer 37

using a solution to a similar problem on a new one

Question 38

example of analogies to solve problems

Answer 38

russian marriage problem (source problem) -> mutilated checkerboard problem (target problem)

Question 39

what is analogical transfer

Answer 39

the transfer from one problem to another

Question 40

what are Gick and Holyoak's step (analogies)

Answer 40

- noticing a relationship - mapping correspondence between source and target - applying mapping

Question 41

what is the duncker's radiation problem

Answer 41

- surface when talking about analogies aiding problem solving - hints are given to notice connection

Question 42

what are the types of hints given to notice a connection in analogy problem solving

Answer 42

surface features (get in the way) and structural features (must be used)

Question 43

what is analogical encoding

Answer 43

the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

Question 44

what are types of negotiation strategies

Answer 44

trade off and contingency

Question 45

what is the trade off strategy

Answer 45

i will give you A if you give me B

Question 46

what is contingency strategy

Answer 46

a person gets what they want if something else happens

Question 47

what is the analogical paradox

Answer 47

it can be difficult to apply analogies in the lab but people naturally use analogies in real world

Question 48

what is in vivo problem solving research

Answer 48

people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world

Question 49

advantages to in vivo problem solving research

Answer 49

naturalistic setting

Question 50

disadvantages to in vivo problem solving research

Answer 50

time consuming and can't isolate and control variables

Question 51

what is an expert

Answer 51

a person who by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning has become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in the field

Question 52

how do experts solve problems in their field

Answer 52

- quickly and a higher success rate - spend more time analyzing the problem

Question 53

who studied experts

Answer 53

Chase and Simons

Question 54

what were the results of Chase and Simons experiment

Answer 54

chess master is better at reproducing the actual game positions but the performance drops if the pieces are arranged randomly

Question 55

what do novice focus on while solving a problem

Answer 55

surface features

Question 56

what do experts focus on while solving a problem

Answer 56

structural features

Question 57

true or false: experts are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

Answer 57

true

Question 58

what kind of thinking do experts usually have

Answer 58

convergent

Question 59

what type of thinking is more creative

Answer 59

divergent

Question 60

what is creativity

Answer 60

- innovative thinking - novel ideas - new connections between existing ideas

Question 61

what is divergent thinking

Answer 61

open ended, large number of potential solutions

Question 62

what is creative cognition

Answer 62

techniques to train people to think creatively

Question 63

what is pre-inventive forms

Answer 63

ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

Question 64

who studied problem solving

Answer 64

Basadur

Question 65

what did Basadur propose with problem solving

Answer 65

4 stages all divided in two processes

Question 66

what are the stages of problem solving

Answer 66

stage 1: problem. generation stage 2: problem formulation stage 3: problem solving stage 4: solution implementation

Question 67

what are the two processes in stage 1 of problem solving

Answer 67

- problem finding - fact finding

Question 68

what are the two processes in stage 2 of problem solving

Answer 68

- problem definition - idea finding

Question 69

what are the two processes in stage 3 of problem solving

Answer 69

- planning - evaluation and selection

Question 70

what are the two processes in stage 4 of problem solving

Answer 70

- taking action - selling idea