chapter 13

Question 1

decision definition

Answer 1

the process of making choices between alternatives

Question 2

reasoning definition

Answer 2

the process of drawing conclusions

Question 3

what is inductive reasoning

Answer 3

• reasoning based on observations
• reaching conclusions from evidence

Question 4

what strengthens an argument using inductive reasoning

Answer 4

• representativeness of observations
• number of observations
• quality of observations

Question 5

inductive reasoning and scientific discoveries

Answer 5

make hypotheses and general conclusions

Question 6

inductive reasoning and everyday life

Answer 6

make a prediction about what will happen based on observation about what has happened in the past

Question 7

what is heuristics

Answer 7

rule of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem but are not foolproof

Question 8

what are the two common heuristics

Answer 8

availability and representativeness

Question 9

what is availability heuristic

Answer 9

events more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than those less easily remembered
- influenced by media

Question 10

what are the types of correlations seen with availability heuristics

Answer 10

illusory and spurious correlations

Question 11

what is illusory correlations

Answer 11

a correlation appears to exist but either does not exist or is much weaker than assumed

Question 12

what is spurious correlations

Answer 12

a correlation that appears to exist between two events caused by a hidden variable

Question 13

what are stereotypes

Answer 13

an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

Question 14

what is representativeness heuristic

Answer 14

the probability that A is a member of class B is determined by how well A properties resemble properties normally associated with B

Question 15

what information is used while following representativeness heuristic

Answer 15

• use base rate if that is all that is available
• use descriptive information if available

Question 16

what are the rules seen with representativeness heuristic

Answer 16

conjunction rule and law of large numbers

Question 17

what is the conjunction rule

Answer 17

the probability of the conjunction of two events can’t be higher than the probability of the single constituents

Question 18

what is the law of large numbers

Answer 18

the larger the number of individuals randomly drawn from a population the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

Question 19

what types of attitudes affect judgement

Answer 19

myside bias and confirmation bias

Question 20

what is myside bias

Answer 20

tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypothesis in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

Question 21

what is confirmation bias

Answer 21

tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it

Question 22

who studied attitudes towards judgements

Answer 22

lord

Question 23

what was the results of lord’s experiment

Answer 23

that those who favored capital punishment found the article convincing and those who did not favor capital punishment found the article unconvincing (it was the same article)

Question 24

what has increased the issue of false evidence

Answer 24

With the advent of social media and AI-generated deepfakes, the problem has been getting worse

Question 25

what is the backfire effect

Answer 25

when individuals’ support for a particular viewpoint strengthens when faced with corrective facts opposing their perspective

Question 26

why does Presenting facts frequently not work.

Answer 26

the backfire effect

Question 27

what is bias bias

Answer 27

the tendency for individuals to recognize biases in others more readily than in themselves

Question 28

what is deep fake media

Answer 28

Synthetic media created using artificial intelligence

Question 29

what is deductive reasoning

Answer 29

determining whether a conclusion logically follows from premises

Question 30

what type of reasoning is syllogisms

Answer 30

deductive

Question 31

what is a syllogism

Answer 31

- Comprised of two statements called premises. - A third statement is called the conclusion

Question 32

what is categorical syllogism

Answer 32

Describe the relationship between two categories using all, no, or some

Question 33

true or false: Syllogism is valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premises

Answer 33

true

Question 34

true or false: If two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism’s conclusion must be true

Answer 34

true

Question 35

in deductive reasoning when do most errors occur

Answer 35

in evaluation

Question 36

what is belief bias

Answer 36

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable

Question 37

what is the first premise in all syllogisms

Answer 37

If p, then q

Question 38

what is a mental model

Answer 38

A specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

Question 39

what are the parts to a mental model

Answer 39

- Create a model of a situation. - Generate tentative conclusions about model. - Look for exceptions to falsify the model. - Determine the validity of syllogism

Question 40

what is the wason four card problem

Answer 40

- Effect of using real-world items in a conditional reasoning problem

Question 41

what is the falsification principle

Answer 41

to test a rule, you must look for situations that falsify the rule

Question 42

wason four card problem and the falsification principle

Answer 42

- Most participants fail to do this. - When the problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increase

Question 43

what is permission schema

Answer 43

B can be carried out if A is satisfied

Question 44

premission schema and wason four card problem

Answer 44

- Used in the concrete versions - People are familiar with the rules

Question 45

what is conditional reasoning

Answer 45

- Context is important - Familiarity is not always essential

Question 46

who used wason test in the real world

Answer 46

Cosmides and Tooby

Question 47

Cosmides and Tooby experiment results

Answer 47

- People may be more sensitive to situations involving permissions or regulation - From an evolutionary perspective, being on the lookout for cheaters is important to survival

Question 48

what is the expected utility theory

Answer 48

- People are rational. - If they have all the relevant information, they will decide to maximize the expected utility.

Question 49

what is utility

Answer 49

Desirable outcomes because they are in the person’s best interest - Maximum monetary payoff

Question 50

what is an advantage to the utility approach

Answer 50

Specific procedures to determine the “best choice”

Question 51

what are the problems of the utility approach

Answer 51

- Not necessarily money, people find value in other things - Many decisions do not maximize the probability of the best outcome

Question 52

what are expected emotions

Answer 52

Emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome

Question 53

true or false: emotions affect decisions

Answer 53

true

Question 54

true or false: People inaccurately predict their emotions

Answer 54

true

Question 55

who stuided emotions with decisions

Answer 55

Kermer

Question 56

what were Kermer experiment results

Answer 56

people only slightly overestimate the expected positive effect of winning, compared to the actual effect of winning

Question 57

what are incidental emotions

Answer 57

Emotions that are not specifically related to decision-making

Question 58

what is incidental emotions related to

Answer 58

one’s general disposition or personality, recent experience, or one’s general environment or surroundings

Question 59

true or false: incidental emotions Can affect one’s overall decision-making processes

Answer 59

true

Question 60

when making a risky decision what are the types of strategies

Answer 60

risk aversion and risk taking

Question 61

when does someone use the risk aversion strategy

Answer 61

used when the problem is stated in terms of gains

Question 62

when does someone use the risk taking strategy

Answer 62

when the problem is stated in terms of losses

Question 63

what is the framing effect

Answer 63

Decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated

Question 64

who studied the framing effect

Answer 64

Tversky and Kahneman

Question 65

what were the results of Tversky and Kahneman experiment

Answer 65

- When situations are framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk aversion strategy. - When situations are framed in terms of losses, people tend toward a risk-taking strategy.

Question 66

definition of one finding (neuroeconomics)

Answer 66

decisions are influenced by emotions, and those emotions are associated with activity in specific areas of the brain

Question 67

who studied neuroeconomics

Answer 67

Sanfey - ultimatum game

Question 68

what were the results of Sanfey experiment

Answer 68

- Often rejected low offers because they became angry that offers were unfair - Less angry with an “unfair” computer - shows a difference between people's acceptance from offers with human and computer

Question 69

what did Sanfey find about the brain

Answer 69

More activation of the right anterior insula (connected with emotional states), participants more likely to reject more offers

Question 70

who developed the dual system approach

Answer 70

Kahneman

Question 71

what is system 1 (dual system approach)

Answer 71

fast, automatic, intuitive, nonconscious

Question 72

when is system 1 (dual system approach used)

Answer 72

Much of our day-to-day existence

Question 72

what is system 2 (dual system approach)

Answer 72

slower, deliberative, conscious, controlled

Question 73

when is system 2 (dual system approach used)

Answer 73

when we need to be more thoughtful

Question 74

who developed type 1 and type 2 processing

Answer 74

Stanovich and West - similar to dual system

Question 75

why is type 1 and type 2 favored over dual system approach

Answer 75

many researchers favor this approach because it better reflects the interconnected, distributed processing that occurs in the brain.